Definition

The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor

of ABET)[3] has defined "engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,
apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to
construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior
under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation
and safety to life and property.[4][5]

History
Main article: History of engineering

Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his age.

Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the
wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer, which itself dates back to the 14th
century when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine) referred to "a
constructor of military engines."[6] In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military
machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable examples
of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering
corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c.
1250), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."[7]
Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical
discipline, the term civil engineering[5] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those
specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline
of military engineering.

Ancient era

The Ancient Romans built aqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns
in the empire.

The pyramids in ancient Egypt, ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the Acropolis and Parthenon in

Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán, and the Brihadeeswarar
Temple of Thanjavur, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of
ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria, were important engineering achievements of
their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East. The wedge and
the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.[8] The wheel, along with the wheel
and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.
[9]
 The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was
used in a simple balance scale,[10] and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.
[11]
 The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which
appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,[10] and then in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000
BC.[12] The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,
[13]
 and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1802 BC).[14] The screw, the last of the
simple machines to be invented,[15] first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period
(911-609) BC.[13] The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the
inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza.[16]
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[5] As one of the officials of
the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of
Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.[17] The earliest
practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian
Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.[18]
Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of
human energy.[19]Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water
as well as boost irrigation.[20] Sappers were employed to build causeways during military
campaigns.[21] Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.
[22]
Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.[23][24][25][26]
Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera
mechanism, an early known mechanical analog computer,[27][28] and the
mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of
Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge
of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped
design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields
such as robotics and automotive engineering.[29]
Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions
such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,[30] the trireme,
the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed.

Middle Ages
The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump, first appeared in
the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and
Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.[31][32][33][34] The earliest practical steam-powered machine was
a steam jack driven by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn
Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.[35][36]
The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD,[37] and the spinning wheel was
invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century,[38] both of which were fundamental to the
growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny,
which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.
[39]
 The crankshaft and camshaft were invented by Al-Jazari in Northern Mesopotamia circa 1206,
[40][41][42]
 and they later became central to modern machinery such as the steam engine, internal
combustion engine and automatic controls.[43]
The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a
programmable musical instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first
music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described
in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the 9th century.[44][45] In 1206, Al-Jazari invented
programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers
operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms
and different drum patterns.[46] The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical
clock invented by Al-Jazari, was the first programmable analog computer.[47][48][49]

A water-powered mine hoist used for raising ore, ca. 1556

Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and
craftsmen, such as millwrights, clockmakers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these
professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to
technology.[50]: 32 
A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the
mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology,
mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180
years.[50]

Modern era

The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in iron making, lowering the
cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges. This bridge was made
of cast iron, which was soon displaced by less brittle wrought iron as a structural material

The science of classical mechanics, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the
scientific basis of much of modern engineering.[50] With the rise of engineering as a profession in
the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and
science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the
fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.
Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial
Revolution.[51]
John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of
civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals,
harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.
Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways
to increase efficiency.[52]: 127  Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.[50]: 
69 
 Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine. Smeaton
designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic
lime' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving
dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history,
rediscovery of, and development of modern cement, because he identified the compositional
requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention
of Portland cement.
Applied science lead to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began
with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure
by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von
Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin,
who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he
published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100
inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator. Samuel Morland,
a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office
on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called
"The Miner's Friend." It employed both vacuum and pressure.[53] Iron merchant Thomas
Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have
any scientific training.[52]: 32 

Jumbo Jet

The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air
for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher
furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime
in blast furnaces, which enabled the transition from charcoal to coke.[54] These innovations
lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process,
patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast,
patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to
smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of
steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.[55] New steel making
processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of
heavy engineering in the late 19th century.
One of the most famous engineers of the mid 19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who
built railroads, dockyards and steamships.
Offshore platform, Gulf of Mexico

The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the
development of several machine tools. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible
until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine, which is considered the first machine tool.
[56]
 Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe, milling machine, turret lathe and
the metal planer. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th
century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to
hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of
producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century.[57]
The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a
count of 2,000.[58] There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In
1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to
43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and
electrical.[59]
There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and
no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[60]
The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro
Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in
1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's
equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics. The
later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of
electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their
colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[5] Chemical engineering developed in the late
nineteenth century.[5]Early Career Development programː Britannica</ref> Industrial scale
manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large
scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the
development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[5] The role of
the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[5]

The solar furnace at Odeillo in the Pyrénées-Orientales in France can reach temperatures up to 3,500 °C

(6,330 °F)

Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace

engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by
including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the
start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as
being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was
largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[61]
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United
States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD
awarded in science in the U.S.[62]
Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive
development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used
in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by
combining theoretical physics with experiments.

Main branches of engineering

For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of engineering.

Hoover Dam

Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although
an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-
disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:
[63][64][65]
 chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical
engineering.

Chemical engineering
Main article: Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles
in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture
of commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation,
and biomolecule production.

Civil engineering
Main article: Civil engineering
Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such
as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels,
dams, and buildings.[66][67] Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines,
including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying. It is traditionally
considered to be separate from military engineering.[68]

Electrical engineering
Main article: Electrical engineering
Electric motor

Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic
systems, such as broadcast engineering, electrical
circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic
devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic
devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, control systems,
and electronics.

Mechanical engineering
Main article: Mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such
as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon
systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum
technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, robotics, turbines, audio equipments,
and mechatronics.

Bioengineering
Main article: Biological engineering
Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose. Examples of
bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging
technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and
tissue-engineered organs.

Interdisciplinary engineering
Main article: List of engineering branches
Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice.
Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering
fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion
engineering, instrumentation and
control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information
engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosy
stems, biomedical,[69] geological, textile, industrial, materials,[70] and nuclear engineering.[71] These
and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the
UK Engineering Council.
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for
example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas
including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and philosophy of
engineering.

Other branches of engineering

Aerospace engineering
Main article: Aerospace engineering
Aerospace engineering studies design, manufacture aircraft, satellites, rockets, helicopters, and
so on. It closely studies the pressure difference and aerodynamics of a vehicle to ensure safety
and efficiency. Since most of the studies are related to fluids, it is applied to any moving vehicle,
such as cars.

Marine engineering
Main article: Marine engineering
Marine engineering is associated with anything on or near the ocean. Examples are, but not
limited to, ships, submarines, oil rigs, structure, watercraft propulsion, on-board design and
development, plants, harbors, and so on. It requires a combined knowledge in mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, and some programming abilities.

Computer engineering
Main article: Computer engineering
Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer
science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software.
Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical
engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software
engineering or electronic engineering.

Practice
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One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have
more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated
Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated Engineering Representative.

Methodology
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Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves
mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as the steam
cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized.
In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics
to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient
knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to
learn new material throughout their careers.
If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose
the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify,
understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is
generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further
requirements.
Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations,
flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for
cost, safety, marketability, productivity, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints,
engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be
produced and operated.

Problem solving

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on
function and the utilization of mathematics and science.

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate

experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a particular problem. Creating an
appropriate mathematical model of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes
definitively), and to test potential solutions.[72]
Usually, multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design
choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich
Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested
that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the
best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.[73]
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications
prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale
models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures
that products will perform as expected.[74]
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected
and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of
safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering and can help the product
designer in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest
value after disasters, such as bridge collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the
cause or causes of the failure.[75]

Computer use
A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a Space Shuttle orbiter during re-entry. Solutions to
the flow require modelling of the combined effects of fluid flow and the heat equations.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an
increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a
number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for
engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes,
which can be solved using numerical methods.

Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks

One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD)
software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their
designs. CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element
method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that
can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study
ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses,
temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels,
fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized
with the use of product data management software.[76]
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process
management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and
circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and
Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively
come to be known as product lifecycle management (PLM).[77]

Social context
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Robotic Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.

The engineering profession engages in a wide range of activities, from large collaboration at the
societal level, and also smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated
to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types
of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open-
design engineering.
By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.
Every product or construction used by modern society is influenced by engineering. The results
of engineering activity influence changes to the environment, society and economies, and its
application brings with it a responsibility and public safety.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering
disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and
use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering
companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development. Sub-Saharan Africa, in
particular, has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being
unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid.[citation needed] The attainment of many of
the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to
develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.[78]

Radar, GPS, lidar, ... are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle
developed for 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge)

All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply
solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to
use engineering directly for the good of mankind:
  Engineers Without Borders
 Engineers Against Poverty
 Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
 Engineers for a Sustainable World
 Engineering for Change
 Engineering Ministries International[79]
Engineering companies in many established economies are facing significant challenges with
regard to the number of professional engineers being trained, compared with the number retiring.
This problem is very prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.
[80]
 There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical
issues.[81] It is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an "image crisis",[82] rather than
it being fundamentally an unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid huge problems in
the UK and other western economies. Still, the UK holds most engineering companies compared
to other European countries, together with the United States.

Code of ethics
Main article: Engineering ethics
Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide
members and inform the public at large. The National Society of Professional Engineers code of
ethics states:
Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers
are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct
and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by
engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the
protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of
professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.[83]
In Canada, many engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and
ethics associated with their profession.[84]

Relationships with other disciplines

Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.

— Theodore von Kármán[85][86][87]

Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner inside National Ignition Facility (NIF)
target chamber

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one
applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and
phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate
observations.[citation needed]
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental
apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers
sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment,
scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".[citation needed]

The International Space Station is used to conduct science experiments of outer space

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,[88] Walter Vincenti asserts that
engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals
with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems
themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any
science field has to do with technology.[89][90] Physics is an exploratory science that seeks
knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles.
The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures
variables involved and creates technology.[91][92][93] For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a
way technology is considered as applied physics.[94] Though physics and engineering are
interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would
typically require additional and relevant training.[95] Physicists and engineers engage in different
lines of work.[96] But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of engineering physics and applied
physics are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.[97]
An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to
describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate
the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-
empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of
parameter variation.[citation needed]
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid
Mechanics:
Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to
make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an
invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people
can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a
computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement
on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its
geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new
designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most
often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they
studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they had to add to the
sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.[98]
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into
account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well
as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the
case of failure of the solution.[99]

Medicine and biology

A 3 tesla clinical MRI scanner.

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an
important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to
sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the
use of technology.

Genetically engineered mice expressing green fluorescent protein, which glows green under blue light. The
central mouse is wild-type.

Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs
and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for
example, brain implants and pacemakers.[100][101] The fields of bionics and medical bionics are
dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth
studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with
technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and
medicine.[102][103]
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before
phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore
experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological
machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[104]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[105] the skeleton is like a linked structure with
levers,[106] the brain produces electrical signals etc.[107] These similarities as well as the increasing
importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the
field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools
traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the
description of biological systems.[104]

Art
Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.
[108]
 He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.

There are connections between engineering and art, for example, architecture, landscape

architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be
included in a university's Faculty of Engineering).[109][110][111]
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace
design.[112] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.
[113]
 At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National
Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.[109][114]
Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and
engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[108][115]

Business
Business Engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems,
business administration and change management. Engineering management or "Management
engineering" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the
engineering industry sector. The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the
opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the
development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and
skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will
develop industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business
administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change
management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational
psychology principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as certified management
consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to engineering
practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex business
transformation or Business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence,
automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical & electronics,
power distribution & generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of
technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and
change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as
management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are
typically sponsored by C-level executives.

Other fields
In political science, the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects
of social engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming political and social
structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Marketing
engineering and Financial engineering have similarly borrowed the term.