UNIT-II

Geometric Modeling
 
Introduction
 
Geometric modeling is a part of computational geometry and applied
mathematics that studies algorithms and techniques for the mathematical
description of shapes.
 
The shapes defined in geometric modeling are generally 2D or 3D, even
though several of its principles and tools can be used to sets of any finite
dimension. Geometric modeling is created with computer based applications.
2D models are significant in computer technical drawing and typography. 3D
models are fundamental to CAD and CAM and extensively used in many
applied technical branches such as civil engineering and mechanical
engineering and medical image processing.
 
Geometric models are commonly differentiated from object oriented
models and procedural, which describe the shape perfectly by an opaque
algorithm that creates its appearance. They are also compared with volumetric
models and digital images which shows the shape as a subset of a regular
partition of space; and with fractal models that provide an infinitely recursive
description of the shape. Though, these differences are often fuzzy: for
example, a image can be interpreted as a collection of colored squares; and
geometric shape of circles are defined by implicit mathematical equations.
Also, a fractal model gives a parametric model when its recursive description
is truncated to a finite depth.

Representation of curves
 
A curve is  an  entity  related  to  a line but  which  is  not  required  to  be
straight.  A curve  is a topological space which is internally homeomorphism to
a line; this shows that a curve is a set of points which close to each of its points
looks like a line, up to a deformation.
A conic section is   a curve created   as   the intersection of   a cone with a
plane.  In analytic geometry,   a   conic may   be   described   as   a
plane algebraic   curve of degree   two, and as a quadric of dimension two.
There are several of added geometric definitions possible. One of the
most practical, in that it involves only the plane, is that a non circular conic has
those points whose distances to various point, called a ‘focus’, and several line,
called a ‘directrix’,are in a fixed ratio, called the ‘eccentricity’.
1. Conic Section
 
Conventionally, the three kinds of conic section are the hyperbola, the ellipse
and the parabola. The circle is a unique case of the ellipse, and is of adequate
interest in its own right that it is sometimes described the fourth kind of conic
section. The method of a conic relates to its ‘eccentricity’,those with
eccentricity less than one is ellipses, those with eccentricity equal to one is
parabolas, and those with eccentricity greater than one is hyperbolas. In the
focus, directrix describes a conic the circle is a limiting with eccentricity zero.
In modern geometry some degenerate methods, such as the combination of two
lines, are integrated as conics as well.

Fig.2.1. Conic sections

 
The three kinds of conic sections are the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
The circle can be taken as a fourth kind of ellipse. The circle and the ellipse
occur when the intersection of plane and cone is a closed curve. The circle is
generated when the cutting plane is parallel to the generating of the cone. If the
cutting plane is parallel to accurately one generating line of the cone, then the
conic is unbounded and is mentioned a parabola. In the other case, the figure is
a hyperbola.
 
Different factors are connected with a conic section, as shown in the Table 2.1.
For the ellipse, the table shows the case of ‘a’> ‘b’, for which the major axis is
horizontal; for the other case, interchange the symbols ‘a’and ‘b’.For the
hyperbola the east-west opening case is specified. In all cases, ‘a’nd ‘b’are
positive.
Table 2.1. Conic Sections

The non-circular conic sections are accurately those curves that, for a point ‘F’,a
line ‘L’not having  ‘F’and  a  number ‘e’ which  is  non-negative,  are   the locus
of  points  whose   distance to ‘F’equals ‘e’ multiplies   their   distance   to
‘L’.‘F’is   called   the focus, ‘L’the   directrix, and ‘e’the eccentricity.
i. Linear eccentricity (c) is the space between the center and the focus.
 
ii.Latus rectum (2l) is parallel to the directrix and passing via the focus.
 
iii. Semi-latus rectum (l) is half the latus rectum.
 
iv.              Focal parameter (p) is the distance from the focus to the directrix.
The relationship for the above : p*e = l and a*e=c.
 
Hermite curve
 
A Hermite curve is a spline where every piece is a third degree
polynomial defined in Hermite form: that is, by its values and initial derivatives
at the end points of the equivalent domain interval. Cubic Hermite splines are
normally used for interpolation of numeric values defined at certain dispute
values x1,x2,x3, …..xn,to achieve a smooth continuous function. The data
should have the preferred function value and derivative at each Xk. The Hermite
formula is used to every interval (Xk, Xk+1) individually. The resulting spline
become continuous and will have first derivative.
 
Cubic polynomial splines are specially used in computer geometric
modeling to attain curves that pass via defined points of the plane in 3D space.
In these purposes, each coordinate of the plane is individually interpolated by a
cubic spline function of a divided parameter‘t’.
 
Cubic splines can be completed to functions of different parameters, in several
ways. Bicubic splines are frequently used to interpolate data on a common
rectangular grid, such as pixel values in a digital picture. Bicubic surface
patches, described by three bicubic splines, are an necessary tool in computer
graphics. Hermite curves are simple to calculate but also more powerful. They
are used to well interpolate between key points.

Fig.2.2. Hermite curve

 
The following vectors needs to compute a Hermite curve:
 
·        P1: the start point of the Hermite curve

·        T1: the tangent to the start point

·        P2: the endpoint of the Hermite curve

·        T2: the tangent to the endpoint

 
These four vectors are basically multiplied with four Hermite basis functions
h1(s), h2(s), h3(s) and,h4(s) and added together.
 
h1(s) = 2s3 - 3s2 + 1 h2(s) = -2s3 + 3s2
 
h3(s) = s3 - 2s2 + s h4(s) = s3 - s2
 
Figure 2.3 shows the functions of Hermite Curve of the 4 functions (from left to
right: h1, h2, h3, h4).
 
 
 Fig.2.3. Functions of Hermite curve
 
A closer view at functions ‘h1’and ‘h2’,the result shows that function ‘h1’starts
at one and goes slowly to zero and function ‘h2’starts at zero and goes slowly to
one.
At the moment, multiply the start point with function ‘h1’and the
endpoint with function ‘h2’. Let s varies from zero to one to interpolate between
start and endpoint of Hermite Curve. Function
 
‘h3’and function ‘h4’are used to the tangents in the similar way. They make
confident that the Hermite curve bends in the desired direction at the start and
endpoint.
Bezier curve
 
Bezier curves are extensively applied in CAD to model smooth curves.
As the curve is totally limited in the convex hull of its control points P0, P1,P2
& P3, the points can be graphically represented and applied to manipulate the
curve logically. The control points P0 and P3 of the polygon lie on the curve
(Fig.2.4.). The other two vertices described the order, derivatives and curve
shape. The Bezier curve is commonly tangent to first and last vertices.
 
Cubic Bezier curves and Quadratic Bezier curves are very common. Higher
degree Bezier curves are highly computational to evaluate. When more complex
shapes are required, Bezier curves in low order are patched together to produce
a composite Bezier curve. A composite Bezier curve is usually described to as a
‘path’in vector graphics standards and programs. For smoothness assurance, the
control point at which two curves meet should be on the line between the two
control points on both sides.
 Fig.2.4. Bezier curve
 
A general adaptive method is recursive subdivision, in which a curve's
control points are verified to view if the curve approximates a line segment to
within a low tolerance. If not, the curve is further divided parametrically into
two segments, 0 ≤t ≤0.5 and 0.5 ≤ ≤t1, and the same process is used recursively
to each half. There are future promote differencing techniques, but more care
must be taken to analyze error transmission.
 
Analytical methods where a Bezier is intersected with every scan line engage
finding roots of cubic polynomials and having with multiple roots, so they are
not often applied in practice. A Bezier curve is described by a set of control
points P0 through Pn, where ‘n’is order of curve. The initial and end control
points are commonly the end points of the curve; but, the intermediate control
points normally do not lie on the curve.
 
(i)                Linear Bezier curves

2.5. Linear Bezier curve

 
As shown in the figure 2.5, the given points P0 and P1, a linear Bezier
curve is merely a straight line between those two points. The Bezier curve is
represented by And it is similar to linear interpolation.
 
 (ii) Quadratic Bezier curves

Fig.2.6. Quadratic Bezier curve

As shown in the figure 2.6, a quadratic Bezier curve is the path defined by the
function B(t), given points P0, P1, and P2,

This can be interpreted as the linear interpolate of respective points on the linear
Bezier curves from P0 to P1 and from P1 to P2 respectively. Reshuffle the
preceding equation gives:

The derivative of the Bezier curve with respect to the value ‘t’is

From  which  it  can  be  finished  that  the  tangents  to  the  curve  at P0  and P2 
intersect  at P1.  While
 
‘t’increases from zero to one, the curve departs from P0 in the direction of P1,
then turns to land at P2 from the direction of P1.
 
The following equation is a second derivative of the Bezier curve with respect
to ‘t’:

A quadratic Bezier curve is represent a parabolic segment. Since a

parabola curve is a conic section, a few sources refer to quadratic Beziers as
‘conic arcs’.
 
(iii) Cubic Bezier curves
 
As shown in figure 2.7, four control points P0, P1, P2 and P3 in the higher-
dimensional space describe as a Cubic Bezier curve. The curve begins at
P0 going on the way to P1 and reaches at P3 coming from the direction of P2.
Typically, it will not pass through control points P1 / P2, these points are only
there to give directional data. The distance between P0 and P1 determines ‘how
fast’and ‘how far’the curve travels towards P1 before turning towards P2.

Fig.2.7. Cubic Bezier curve

 
The function B Pi, Pj, Pk (t) for the quadratic Bezier curve written by points Pi, Pj,
and Pk, the cubic Bezier curve can be described as a linear blending of two
quadratic Bezier curves:

For several choices of P1  and P2  the Bezier curve may meet itself.
 
Any sequence of any four dissimilar points can be changed to a cubic Bezier
curve that goes via all four points in order. Given the beginning and ending
point of a few cubic Bezier curve, and the points beside the curve equivalent to t
= 1/3 and t = 2/3, the control points for the original Bezier curve can be
improved.
 
The following equation represent first derivative of the cubic Bezier curve with
respect to t:
The following equation represent second derivative of the Bezier curve with
respect to t:

 
1. Properties Bezier curve
 
·       The Bezier curve starts at P0  and ends at Pn; this is known as ‘endpoint
interpolation’property.
·       The Bezier curve is a straight line when all the control points of a cure are
collinear.
·       The beginning of the Bezier curve is tangent to the first portion of the
Bezier polygon.
·       A Bezier curve can be divided at any point into two sub curves, each of
which is also a Bezier curve.
 
·       A few curves that look like simple, such as the circle, cannot be expressed
accurately by a Bezier; via four piece cubic Bezier curve can similar a circle,
with a maximum radial error of less than one part in a thousand (Fig.2.8).

Fig.2.8. Circular Bezier curve

 
 
·       Each quadratic Bezier curve is become a cubic Bezier curve, and more
commonly, each degree ‘n’Bezier curve is also a degree ‘m’curve for
any m > n.
Bezier curves have the different diminishing property. A Bezier curves does not
‘ripple’more than the polygon of its control points, and may actually ‘ripple’lss
than that.
 
·       Bezier curve is similar with respect to t and (1-t). This represents that the
sequence of control points defining the curve can be changes without modify
of the curve shape.
·       Bezier curve shape can be edited by either modifying one or more vertices
of its polygon or by keeping the polygon unchanged or simplifying multiple
coincident points at a vertex (Fig .2.19).
 

 
 
2. Construction of Bezier curves
 
(i) Linear curves:
 

Fig.2.10. Construction of linear Bezier curve

 
The figure 2.10 shows the function for a linear Bezier curve can be via of
as describing how far B(t) is from P0 to P1 with respect to ‘t’. When t equals to
0.25, B(t) is one quarter of the way from point P0 to P1. As ‘t’varies from 0 to 1,
B(t) shows a straight line from P0 to P1.
 
(ii) Quadratic curves

Fig.2.11. Construction of linear Quadratic curve

 
As  shown  in  figure  2.11,  a  quadratic  Bezier  curves  one  can 
develop  by  intermediate
 
points Q0 and Q1  such that as ‘t’varies from 0 to 1:
 
·       Point Q0 (t) modifying from P0  to P1  and expresses a linear Bezier curve.
 
·       Point Q1 (t) modifying from P1  to P2  and expresses a linear Bezier curve.
 
·       Point B (t) is interpolated linearly between Q0(t) to Q1(t) and expresses a
quadratic Bezier curve.
 
(iii) Higher-order curves

Fig.2.12. Construction of Higher-order curve

 
As shown in figure 2.12, a higher-order curves one requires
correspondingly higher intermediate points. For create cubic curves,
intermediate points Q0, Q1, and Q2 that express as linear
 
Bezier curves, and points R0  and R1  that express as quadratic Bezier curves.
 
 

3. Rational Bezier curve

 

Fig.2.13. Rational Bezier Curve

 
The rational Bezier curve includes variable weights (w) to provide closer
approximations to arbitrary shapes. For Rational Bezier Curve, the numerator is
a weighted Bernstein form Bezier and the denominator is a weighted sum of
Bernstein polynomials. Rational Bezier curves can be used to signify segments
of conic sections accurately, including circular arcs (Fig.2.13).
TECHNIQUES IN SURFACE MODELLING
 
i.           Surface Patch
 
ii.           Coons Patch
 
iii.           Bicubic Patch
 
iv.          Be’zier Surface
 
v.           B-Spline Surface
 
i.           Surface Patch
 
The patch is the fundamental building block for surfaces. The two
variables u and v vary across the patch; the patch may be
termed biparametric. The parametric variables often lie in the range 0 to 1.
Fixing the value of one of the parametric variables results in a curve on the
patch in terms of the other variable (Isoperimetric curve). Figure shows a
surface with curves at intervals of u and v of 0 : 1.

 
ii.  Coons Patch
 
The sculptured surface often involve interpolation across an intersecting
mesh of curves that in effect comprise a rectangular grid of patches, each
bounded by four boundary curves. The linearly blended coons patch is the
simplest for interpolating between such boundary curves. This patch definition
technique blends for four boundary curves Ci(u) and Dj(v) and the corner points
pij of the patch with the linear blending functions,
 

 
 
 
 iii.           Bicubic Patch
 
 
The bi-cubic patch is used for surface descriptions defined in terms
of point and tangent vector information. The general form of the
expressions for a bi-cubic patch is given by:

This is a vector equation with 16 unknown parameters kij which

can be found by Lagrange interpolation through 4 x 4 grid.
 
iv.          Be’zier Surface
 
The Be’zier surface formulation use a characteristic polygon
 
Points the Bezier surface are given by

 
v.           B-Spline Surfaces
 
The B-spline surface approximates a characteristics polygon as shown and
passes through the corner points of the polygon, where its edges are tangential
to the edges of the polygon
 
This may not happen when the control polygon is closed
 
A control point of the surface influences the surface only over a limited
portion of the parametric space of variables u and v.
 
The expression for the B-spline surfaces is given by
Boundary representation method (B-rep) and Constructive Solid Geometry
(CSG and C-rep)
Solid Modeling Techniques
 
The various methods for representing the solids are:
 
1.     Half-space m ethod
 
2.     Boundary rep resentation method (B-rep)
 
3.            Constructive solid geometry (CSG and C-rep)
 
4.            Sweep repres entation
 
5.            Analytical solid modeling (ASM)
 
 
6.            Primitive inst ancing
 
7.            Spatial partiti oning representation
 
a.     Cell d ecomposition
 
b.     Spatial occupancy enumeration
 
c.      Octree encoding
 
Boundary representation method (B-rep)

The main topological ite ms / primitives of b-rep are:

In solid modeling and computer-aided design, boundary representation often
abbreviated as B-rep or BREP—is a method for representing shapes using the
limits.
 
A solid is represented as a collection of connected surface elements, the
boundary between solid and non-so lid.
 
Boundary representation models are composed of two parts:
 
O  Topology, and
 
O  Geometry (surfaces, curves and points).
 
 
Vertex (V) : It is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space
 
Edge (E): It is finite, non-self-intersecting, directed space c urve bounded by
two vertices that are not necessarily distinct
 
Face (F) : It is defined as a finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of
a closed oriented surface bounded by one or mor e loops
 
Loop (L) : It is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges
 
Genus (G) : It is the topological name for the number of handles or through
holes in an object
 
Body/Shell(B) : It is a set of faces that bound a single connected c losed
volume. A m inimum body is a point
 
A minimum body is a p oint; topologically this body has one face, one vertex,
and no edges. It is called a semin al or singular body.
 
Geometry
 
Open polyhedral objects
Curved Objects

 
Euler’s formula
Euler – Poinc are Law for closed objects : F – E + V – L = 2 (B – G)
Euler – Poinc are Law for open objects : F – E + V – L =  B  – G
Some Euler Operations

 
Solid Model Generation using B-rep
 

 
 Advantages of b-rep
 
O  Appropriate to construct solid models of unusual shapes
 
O  Relatively simple to c onvert a b-rep model to wireframe model
 
Disadvantages of b-rep
 
O  Requires more storage
 
O  Not suitable for applications like tool path generation
 
O  Slow manipulation
 

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG and C-rep)

Constructive solid geometry (CSG) (formerly called computational binary solid
geometry) is a technique used in solid modeling.

Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex surface or

object by using Boolean operators to combine objects.
 
Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually complex, but is
actually little more than cleverly combined or de-combined objects
 
The simplest solid objects used for  the  representation  are  called primitives.
 
Typically they are the objects of simple shape:
 
 cuboids
 cylinders
 prisms
 pyramids
 spheres
 cones
The set of allowable primitives is limited by each software package. Some
software packages allow CSG on curved objects while other packages do not
It is said that an object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable
operations, which are typically Boolean operations on sets: union, intersection
and difference, as well as geometric transformations of those sets
Boolean Operations
CSG Tree

Important Questions and Answers: Geometric Modeling

GEOMETRIC MODELING
 
 
1.     What are the two types of equations for curve representation?
 
 
(1) Parametric equation x, y, z coordinates are related by a parametric
variable (u or θ)
 
(2) Nonparametric equation x, y, z coordinates are related by a function
 
Example: Circle (2-D)
 2. Name some types of curves used in geometric modelling.
 
            Hermite curves
 
            Bezeir curves
 
            B-spline curv es
 
            NURBS curv es

 
3. What are the desirable properties of Bezier Curve?

4. Write any Two Drawbacks of Bezier Curves.

 5. List the advantages of B -spline curves.

6.  What are the functions of Geometric Modelling in design analysis?

 
Evaluation of are a, volume, mass and inertia properties Interference chec
king in assemblies. Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies Kinematic
analys is of mechanisms and robots Automatic mesh generation for finite
element analysis
 
7.  What are the functions of Geometric Modelling in Manufacturing??
 
Parts classification Process planning
 
NC data generation and verification Robot program generation
Scheduling
 
8.     List the Properties of a Geometric Modeling System.
 
The geometric model must stay invariant with regard to its location and
orientation. The solid must have an interior and must not have isolated
parts
 
The solid must be finite and occupy only a finite shape
 
The application of a transformation or Boolean operation must produce
another solid The solid must have a finite number of surfaces which can
be described
 
 The boundary of the solid must not be ambiguous
 
9.  What are called 2 ½ - D Wire frame models?
 
Two classes of shape for which a simple wire-frame representation is
often adequate are those shapes defined by projecting a plane profile along
its normal or by rotating a planar profile about an axis. Such shapes are not
two-dimensional, but neither do they require sophisticated three-dimensional
schemes for their representation. Such representation is called 2 ½ - D.
 
10. Draw an example for 2 ½ - D Wire frame model.
 

 
11.                        Catalog Techniques In Surface Modelling.
 
i.           Surface Patch
 
ii.           Coons Patch
 
iii.           Bicubic Patch
 
iv.          Be’zier Surface
 
v.           B-Spline Surfaces
 
12.                        What are the Solid Modeling Techniques?
 
The various methods for representing the solids are:
 
1.     Half-space method
 
2.     Boundary representation method (B-rep)
 
3.     Constructive solid geometry (CSG and C-rep)
 
4.     Sweep representation
 
5.     Analytical solid modeling (ASM)
 
6.     Primitive instancing
 
7.     Spatial partitioning representation
 
a.     Cell decomposition
 
b.     Spatial occupancy enumeration
 
c.      Octree encoding
13.                        Write short note on Be’zier Surface.
 
The Be’zier s urface formulation use a characteristic polygon
Points the Be zier surface are given by

 
 
14.   Write any topological te rms used Boundary representation method
(B-rep).
 
Vertex (V) : It is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space
 
Edge (E): It is finite, non-self intersecting, directed space c urve bounded by
t wo vertices that are not necessarily distinct
 
Face (F) : It is defined as a finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of
a closed oriented surface bounded by one or mor e loops
 
Loop (L) : It is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges
 
 Genus (G) : It is the topological name for the number of handles or through
holes in an object
 
Body/Shell(B) : It is a set of faces that bound a single connected c losed
volume. A m inimum body is a point
 
15. What is called singular body in b-rep?

A minimum body is a point; topologically this body has one face, one vertex,
and no edges. It is called a seminal or singular body
 
16.                        Sketch some open polyhedral objects used in B-rep.

 
17. Write Euler’s formula for open and closed objects used in b-rep.
 
Euler – Poincare Law for closed objects  :
 
F – E + V – L = 2 (B – G)
 
Euler – Poincare Law for open objects   :
 
F – E + V – L =  B – G
 
18.            What are Advantages and Disadvantages of b-rep?
 
Advantages
 
O  Appropriate to construct solid models of unusual shapes
 
O  Relatively simple to convert a b-rep model to wireframe model
 
Disadvantages of b-rep
 
O  Requires more storage
 
O  Not suitable for applications like tool path generation
 
O   Slow manipulation
 
19.            How solids are created using CSG?
 

20. Give an example for CSG Tree.