Analogue and Digital Communication Lab

(EL-323)

LABORATORY MANUAL

ENGR. IHTISHAM KHALID & ENGR. MUHAMMAD ASIM

IMPLEMENTATION OF FREQUENCY MODULATOR

(LAB # 06)
Student Name: ______________________________________________

Roll No: ________________ Section: ____

Date performed: _____________, 2016

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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER AND EMERGING SCIENCES, ISLAMABAD

Prepared by: Engr. M. Asim, Engr. Ihtisham Khalid Version: 2.01

Last Edited by: Engr. M. Asim, Engr. Ihtisham Khalid
Verified by: Dr. Shahzad Saleem Updated: Fall 2016
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
Lab # 06: IMPLEMENTATION OF FREQUENCY MODULATOR
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the characteristics of varactor diode
2. To understand the operation theory of voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)
3. To design & implement the voltage controlled oscillator and frequency modulator
Equipment Required:
1. ETEK Function Generator Board
2. ETEK DA-2000-03 Board
3. Oscilloscope
The Operation Theory of FM Modulation
In freqquency modulation (FM), we utilize the amplitude of audio signal to modulate the frequency
of carrier signal. The transmitted high and low frequency signals will follow the received audio
signal, which has different frequency that keeps on changing. The frequency modulation can be
expressed as:

x FM ( t ) =A c cosθ ( t ) =A c cos ⁡[2 π f c t +2 π f ∆∫ x(δ )dδ ]

If x ( δ )= A m cos(2 π f m δ)

Then
f ∆ Am
x FM ( t ) =A c cos ⁡[2 π f c t + sin ⁡(2 π f m t)]
fm

x FM ( t ) =A c cos ⁡[2 π f c t + β sin ⁡(2 π f m t )]

Where

θ(t ) : Instantaneous modulated frequency

f c : Carrier frequency
f m : Modulating frequency or audio signal frequency
f∆
β : Modulation Index, β= Am( )
fm
f ∆ : Frequency deviation

Frequency deviation of FM xFM(t) is shown as below

1 d 1 d
f= θ ( t )= [2 π f c t + β sin ⁡(2 π f m t)]
2 π dt 2 π dt

f =f c + f m β cos ( 2 π f m t ) =f c + A m f ∆ cos ⁡(2 π f m t )

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 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
We know that when the amplitude of modulating signal changes, the frequency of FM will change
too, and it uses the center point of carrier frequency to achieve frequency deviation. From Carson’s
rule, the bandwidth (BW) of modulated signal can be expressed as:

Am f ∆
BW ≈ 2 ( β+ 2 ) f m=2 ( fm )
+2 f m=2( A m f ∆+ 2 f m )

BW ≈ 2( f ∆ + 2W )

If the FM signal is the largest amplitude and largest frequency (i.e. Am = 1 & fm = W), then the
bandwidth of FM can be simplified as :

Varactor diode
Varactor diode is also called the tuning diode. Varactor diode is a diode, such that its capacitance
can be varied by adding a reverse bias voltage to the pn junction. When reverse bias voltage
increases, the depletion region becomes wide , this will cause capacitance value to decrease;
nevertheless when reverse bias voltage decreases, the depletion region will be reduced, this will
cause capacitance value to increase. Varactor diode also can be varied from the amplitude of AC
signal. If an AC signal is added to a varactor diode, the variation of capacitance of varactor diode
will follow the amplitude of modulating signal.
Figure-1 is the analog diagram of capacitance of varactor diode. When a varactor diode is without
bias, the concentration will be differed from minor carriers at pn junction. Then these carriers will
diffuse and become depletion region. The p type depletion region carries electron positive ions, then
the n type depletion region carries negative ions. We can use parallel plate capacitor to represent the
depletion region.

Figure-1: The analog diagram of capacitance of varactor diode

The transition capacitance pn junction of the plates can be expressed as:

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 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________

ϵA
C=
d
Where

ϵ = 11.8ϵ o (dielectric constant of silicon)

ϵ o = 8.85x10-12
A = The PN junction area
D : Depletion region

When reverse bias voltage increases, the width of depletion region d will increase but the the cross
section area A remains, therefore the capacitance value would be reduced. On the other hand, the
capacitance value will increase when reverse bias voltage decreases.

Varactor diode can be equivalent to a capacitor series with a resistor (Rs) and inductor (Ls) as
shown is figure-2. Cj is the junction capacitor of semiconductor, which only exists in pn junction.
Rs is the sum of bulk resistor and contact resistor of semiconductor material, which is related to the
quality of varactor diode. Ls is the equivalent inductor of bounding wire and semiconductor
material.

Tuning ratio, TR is the ratio of capacitance value under two different biases for varactor diode. The
expression is as follow

Figure-2: The equivalent circuit diagram of varactor diode

CV 1
TR=
CV 2

Where
TR : Tuning ratio
CV1 : The capacitance value of varactor diode V1
CV2 : The capacitance value of varactor diode V2

From this experiment, the characteristics of the varactor diode 1SV55 is shown as below

C3V = 42 pF (The capacitance of varactor diode at bias 3V)

TR = 2.65 (3V ~ 30V)

Implementation of FM Modulator by using MC1648 VCO

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Page 4 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
This experiment uses MC1648 VCO to implement the FM modulator, the circuit is shown in figure-
3. This circuit is an oscillator, which the input terminal of the tuning circuit controls the oscillation
frequency. The inputs terminal circuit is a tank circuit as shown in figure-4, which includes parallel
capacitors and inductors. The capacitors include a 1SV55 varactor diode Cd and capacitor Cin lies
in between pin 10 and pin 12 of MC1648 where Cin is approximately 6 pF. If the distributed
capacitance is neglected, then the oscillation frequency can be expressed as:

1 1
fo= = ( Hz)
2 π √ LC 2 π √ L(C d +C ¿ )

Figure-3: The circuit diagram of MC1648 FM modulator

Figure-4: The tank circuit of MC1648 FM modulator

From figure-3, C2 and C3 are bypass capacitors which are used to remove the noise. The operation
frequency of this circuit is approximately 2.4 MHz, and the resistance is approximately only few
ohms, therefore, for AC signal, C2 and C3 are short circuit, and Cd and L are parallel to each other.
Capacitor C5 and VR1 are the charge and discharge loop, where VR1 can change the fo range. The
AC equivalent circuit is shown in figure-4.

When we change the DC bias input terminal, Cd will change and therefore, the output frequency of
oscillator will change too. When the voltage of DC bias input terminal increases (from figure-3, the
varactor diode D1 is in reverse bias condition), the Cd decreases and the input frequency of
oscillator will increase. On the other hand, when the voltage of DC bias input terminal decreases,
Cd increases, and the output signal frequency of oscillator will decrease. Therefore, we just need to
adjust the DC bias and then add the audio signal to the DC bias, then we can obtain the FM signal
from the output terminal of the VCO.
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Page 5 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
Implementation of FM Modulator by using VCO LM566
LM566 is voltage-controlled oscillator integrated circuit. Figure-5 is the internal circuit diagram of
LM566. Figure-6 shows the circuit is a main voltage controlled oscillator LM566 frequency
modulator, we let SW1 open circuit, and the circuit is a voltage controlled oscillator. The output
signal frequency is controlled by C3, VR1 and audio signal input terminal voltage. C2 is used to
eliminate parasitic oscillation. If C3 and VR1 remain a constant, then the output signal frequency
and the voltage difference between pin 8 and pin 5 (V 8 – V5) is proportional. In another words,
when input signal voltage V5 increases, the voltage difference between pin 8 and 5 will decrease,
the output signal frequency decreases as well. But when the input signal voltage V5 decreases, the
output signal frequency increases. Another fact that affects the output signal frequency is VR1 x C 3
value, the output signal frequency and VR1 x C3 is inversely proportional. When the VR1 x C3 value
is getting larger, the output frequency is getting lower. But when the VR1 x C 3 value is getting
smaller then the output signal frequency is getting higher. From figure-5, when we short circuit
SW1, then R1 and R2 will provide a DC bias voltage as the DC level of the input audio signal. The
center frequency (fo) can be adjusted by using VR1. If audio signal input terminal is inputted with
an AC signal, the VCO output signal frequency will follow the change of the input audio signal
voltage, which the FM signal is deviated.

Figure-5: The internal circuit diagram of LM566

Figure-6: The circuit diagram of LM566 FM modulator

Experiment 1: The basic characteristic measurement of MC1648 voltage controlled oscillator
1. Refer to figure-3 or ETEK DA-2000-03 module, let J1 open circuit, so that D1 bias will operate
from forward bias input to the terminal I/P2 input, at the same time let J2 short circuit and J3 open
circuit, that means L1 = 100 uH

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Page 6 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. From forward bias input to the terminal I/P2, input 3V of forward voltage, by using oscilloscope,
observe on the output signal waveform; adjust VR1 until output signal is sine wave frequency,
record the output signal frequency in table-1.
3. Plot the characteristic curve of frequency versus voltage

Table-1:
The measured results of MC1648 voltage controlled oscillator
Input 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Forward
Bias (V)
Input
Signal
Frequencie
s (MHz)

Characteristic curve of frequency versus voltage

Experiment 2: MC1648 frequency modulator
1. Refer to figure-3 or ETEK DA-2000-03 module, let J1 short circuit, so that D1 bias operates at 5V,
at the same time let J2 short circuit and J3 open circuit, so as L1 is 100uH. Now, we call the output
signal frequency as cutoff frequency fo.

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Page 7 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. From the audio signal input port (I/P1), input 1V amplitude and 3 KHz sine wave frequency. Adjust
VR1 so that output signal is sine wave.
3. By using spectrum analyzer, observe on the frequency spectrum of output signal and record the
measured results in table-2.
4. Change the audio signal frequencies to 5 KHz and 8 KHz; the others remain the same. Repeat step
3.
Table-2:
The measured results of MC1648 frequency modulator (Vm = 1 V)
Input Signal Input Signal Waveforms Output Signal Waveforms
Frequencies
3 KHz

5 KHz

8 KHz

Experiment 3: The basic characteristic measurement of LM566 VCO

1. Refer to figure-5 or ETEK DA-2000-03 module, let J1 open circuit. The circuit now is voltage
controlled oscillator. Let J2 short circuit, J3 open circuit, that means C3 is 0.1 uF.

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Page 8 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. From the forward voltage input port (pin 5), input 3.6V forward voltage, then adjust VR1 so that
output signal frequency is 2KHz. Now we call this frequency as cutoff frequency fo.
3. Adjust forward voltage input port (pin 5) so that the input signals are 2.7V, 3V, 3.3V, 3.9V, 4.2V
and 4.5V. By using oscilloscope, observe on the output signal waveform and record the output
signal frequency in table-3.
4. Plot the characteristic curve of frequency versus voltage.
5. Let J3 short circuit, J2 open circuit, now change C3 to C4, which is 0.1 uF to 0.01 uF.
6. From the forward bias input port (pin 5), input 3.6V forward voltage, then adjust VR1 so that the
output signal frequency is 20KHz. Now, we call this frequency as cutoff frequency fo.
7. Adjust forward voltage input port (pin 5) so that the input signals are 2.7V, 3V, 3.3V, 3.9V, 4.2V
and 4.5V. By using oscilloscope, observe on the output signal waveform and record the output
signal frequency in table-4.
8. Plot the characteristic curve of frequency versus voltage.

Table-3:
The measured results of LM566 voltage controlled oscillator (C3 = 0.1 uF, fo = 2 KHz)
Input 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5
Voltage
Conversion
(V)
Input
Signal
Frequencie
s (MHz)

Characteristic curve of frequency versus voltage

Table-4:

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Page 9 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
The measured results of LM566 voltage controlled oscillator (C4 = 0.01 uF, fo = 20 KHz)
Input 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5
Voltage
Conversion
(V)
Input
Signal
Frequencie
s (MHz)

Characteristic curve of frequency versus voltage

Experiment 4: LM566 VCO frequency modulator

1. Refer to figure-5 or ETEK DA-2000-03 module, let J1 short circuit, at this moment this circuit is
frequency modulator, let J3 short circuit and J2 open circuit, and now the capacitor C4 is 0.01 uF.
Adjust VR1 until the output signal frequency is 20 KHz.
2. From the audio signal frequency input port (I/P), input 4 V amplitude and 1 KHz sine wave
frequency. By using oscilloscope, observe on the output signal waveform and record the measured
results in table-5.
3. Change the audio signal frequencies to 3 KHz and 5 KHz; the others remain the same. Observe on
the output signal waveform and record the measured results in table-5.
4. From the adjust audio signal input port (I/P), input 1V amplitude and 1 KHz sine wave frequency.
By using oscilloscope, observe on the output signal waveform and record the measured results in
table-6.
5. Change the audio signal frequencies to 3 KHz and 5 KHz; the others remain the same. By using
oscilloscope, observe on the output signal waveform and record the measured results in table-6.

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Page 10 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________

Table-5:
The measured results of LM566 frequency modulator (Vm = 4 V , C3 = 0.01 uF, fo = 20 KHz)
Input Signal Input Signal Waveforms Output Signal Waveforms
Frequencies
1 KHz

3 KHz

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Page 11 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________

5 KHz

Table-6:
The measured results of LM566 frequency modulator (Vm = 6 V , C3 = 0.01 uF, fo = 20 KHz)
Input Signal Input Signal Waveforms Output Signal Waveforms
Frequencies
1 KHz

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Page 12 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________
3 KHz

5 KHz

Student's feedback (Try giving useful feedback, e.g. did this lab session help you in learning, how to
improve student's learning experience, was the staff helpful, etc):
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Student's Signature: _________________________________

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Page 13 of 14
 Lab #
Analogue and Digital National University Roll No: __________
Communication Lab
(EL323)
of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Islamabad Fall 2016
06
____________________________________________________________________________________

Correctness of

TOTAL
AWARDED

Attitude

Neatness

Conclusion
Originality
Initiative
MARKS
TOTAL 10 10 10 20 20 30 100

EARNED

Lab Instructor's Comments:_______________________________________________________

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Lab Instructor's Signature: _________________________________

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