Chapter 1: Introduction To Databases and

Transactions
UNIT 1
 Outline
● Database system
● Purpose of Database system
● Data Models
● Relational Databases
● Database archtecture
● Database Design
● Storage Manager
● Query Processing

● Transaction Manager
Database is collection of ____

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__________________ is collection of interrelated
data and set of program to access them.

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Before use of DBMS information was stored
using __________.

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DBMS stands for __________.

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In __________ data can be stored in structured
manner.

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 Database Management System (DBMS)
● DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
● Collection of interrelated data
● Set of programs to access the data
● An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
where do we use DBMS

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● Database Applications:

● Banking: transactions
● Airlines: reservations, schedules
● Universities: registration, grades
● Sales: customers, products, purchases
● Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
● Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
● Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
File Processing system
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE PROCESSING SYSTEM
Duplication of data at several places is called
as _______________.

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Data Redundancy increases the cost of
storing and retrieving data.

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If in redundant file common fields are not
matching then it results in _____________.

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Data Isolation caused due to ________ in
traditional file system.

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If person A want to transfer fund of Rs.500 to
person B. If failure occurs after removing
Rs.500 from Account A and before
transferring to Account B then problem
caused is __________.
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 Data Models
● A collection of tools for describing
● Data
● Data relationships
● Data semantics
● Data constraints
● Relational model
● Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
● Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
● Semistructured data model (XML)
● Other older models:
● Network model
● Hierarchical model
 Relational Model
● data is stored in various tables. column
● Example of tabular data in the relational model

row
A example Relational Database
 XML: Extensible Markup Language
● Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
● Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
● The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
● XML has become the basis for all new generation data
interchange formats.
● A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data
 Object-Relational Data Models
● Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
● Object Relational Data Models
● Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
● Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including
non-atomic values such as nested relations.
● Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
● Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.
 Database Design
● Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each of the
relations in the database is “good”
● Two ways of doing so:
● l Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
● lNormalization Theory (Chapter 8)
Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
 Views of Data
It refers that how database is actually stored in database, what
data and structure of data used by database for data. So
describe all this database provides user with views and these are
● Data abstraction

● Instances and schemas.

 Levels of Abstraction
● Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
● Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among
the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
● View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also
hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes.
An architecture for a database system
 Schemas
● Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
● Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers
and accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
4 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
● Physical schema– the overall physical structure of the database
 Instances
● Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
● Analogous to the value of a variable
● Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema
● Applications depend on the logical schema
● In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components
should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.
Database languages
 Database Engine
● Storage manager
● Query processing
● Transaction manager
 Storage Management
● Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between
the low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and
queries submitted to the system.
● The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
● Interaction with the OS file manager
● Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
● Issues:
● Storage access
● File organization
● Indexing and hashing
 Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
 Query Processing (Cont.)
● Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
● Equivalent expressions
● Different algorithms for each operation
● Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can be
enormous
● Need to estimate the cost of operations
● Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the
database must maintain
● Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of
complex expressions
 Transaction Management
● What if the system fails?
● What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
● A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical
function in a database application
● Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in
a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and
operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
● Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.
Database Users and Administrators
DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
STRUCTURE
OF DBMS
 History of Database Systems
● 1950s and early 1960s:
● Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
4 Tapes provided only sequential access
● Punched cards for input
● Late 1960s and 1970s:
● Hard disks allowed direct access to data
● Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
● Ted Codd defines the relational data model
4 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
4 IBM Research begins System R prototype
4 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
● High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
 History (cont.)
● 1980s:
● Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
4 SQL becomes industrial standard
● Parallel and distributed database systems
● Object-oriented database systems
● 1990s:
● Large decision support and data-mining applications
● Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
● Emergence of Web commerce
● Early 2000s:
● XML and XQuery standards
● Automated database administration
● Later 2000s:
● Giant data storage systems
4 Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..
END OF CHAPTER 1