ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

School of Electrical Engineering and Computing

Dr.P.Palanivel
Fundamental of electrical engineering

CHAPTER FOUR

STEADY STATE SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUIT ANALYIS

12/18/2019
 Chapter contents

1 4
Introduction
AC circuits

5
2
Equations of sinusoidal wave
form Frequency response

3 6

Complex number review Quality factor etc…

12/18/2019
Million .G
2
 1. Introduction
 Electricity is produced by generators at power stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National grid system) to industry and for domestic use.

 It is easier and cheaper to generate alternating current (AC) than direct current (DC) and ac is more
conveniently distributed than dc.

 Since its voltage can be readily altered using transformers.

 One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular velocity in a fixed magnetic
field.

 The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut (Faraday’s
law), and its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field.

 Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time.

12/18/2019
Million .G
3
 Cont’d
• Since the coil sides are moving
• Vo l t a g e r e a c h e s a p e a k a t t h e
parallel to the field, no flux lines
2700 point, and, since the
are being cut and the induced
polarity of the voltage has voltage at this instant (and hence
changed, so has the direction the current) is zero.
of current. When the coil
reaches the 3600 position,
voltage is again zero and the
c y c l e s t a r t s o v e r.

• As the coil rotates from

the 00 position, coil sides
A A’ a n d B B ’ c u t a c r o s s
flux lines; hence, voltage
• A s t h e c o i l r o t a t e s f u r t h e r,
builds, reaching a peak
voltage decreases, reaching
when flux is cut at the
zero at the 1800 position
maximum rate in the 900
when the coil sides again
position. Note the polarity
move parallel to the field
of the voltage and the
12/18/2019
Million .G
direction of current. 4
 C o n t ’ d

Period (T): the time taken for an alternating quantity Instantaneous value: the magnitude of a waveform at
to complete one cycle is called the period of the any instant of time; denoted by lower case letters
waveform. (e1,e2,i1,i2…)
Peak value: the maximum instantaneous value of a
waveform as measured from the zero-volt level.

Frequency: the number of cycles completed in one

second is called the frequency of the waveform and
measured n hertz, Hz
1ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
The Period and frequency of a sin wave can be related Peak-to-peak value: the full voltage between
by the following equation: positive and negative peaks of the waveform, that is,
1 1 the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑇 peaks.
12/18/2019
Million .G
5
 Cont’d
𝜋𝜋
Average (mean) value: 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ∫0 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜋𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = Am −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0 = −𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐00
The average value of sin wave is the average value
= −𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 −1 − +1 = −𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 −2 𝑎𝑎 = 2𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚
measured over a half cycle
Since we know the area under the positive half cycle,
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = we can easily determine the average value the positive
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
region of a sine wave:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚
=
𝜋𝜋
Average value=0.637Am

12/18/2019
Million .G
6
 2 . E q u a t i o n o f s i n u s o i d a l w a v e f o r m

• The basic mathematical formula for the sinusoidal Relationship between ω, T and f
waveform is:
o One cycle of sine wave may be represented as either
𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝛼𝛼 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 or t=Ts. Substituting these in to 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔,
• Where e is instantaneous voltage, Em is the maximum
2π=ωt
coil voltage and α is the instantaneous angular position
o 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
of the coil.
Angular Velocity (ω): the rate at which the generator coil o Then, 𝜔𝜔 =
2𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇
rotates is called its angular velocity.
𝛼𝛼 o Recall that f=1/T Hz. Using this eqn in the above eqns:
𝜔𝜔 = , Where, α is angular distance and t is time
𝑡𝑡
o 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)
α = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
o 𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 but 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• In practice, ω is usually expressed in radians per
second, where radians and degrees are related by the o Combining these equations yields
identity, 2𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 3600 o 𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
12/18/2019
Million .G
7
 Cont’d
o Similarly, 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 o A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a

o Substitute 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 to the above equation yields vertical axis can be used to represent sinusoid ally

𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 varying quantities.

o The general expression for an alternating voltage is o The sinusoidal output voltage from the simple

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃) generator can be represented by the phasor

diagram.
Phasor

o The instantaneous levels of alternating current

and voltage are vector quantities, since these
levels are continuously changing, an AC waveform
must be represented by rotating vector or phasor.

Fig.4. 2: Phasor representation of AC waveform and phasor

diagram 𝒗𝒗 = 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 < 𝜃𝜃
12/18/2019
Million .G
8
 Cont’d
Vo l t a g e s a n d c u r r e n t s w i t h p h a s e s h i f t s
• Sometimes voltages and currents are expressed in terms
• If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t=0 it has a of 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 rather than 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.
phase shift.
• A cosine wave is a sine wave shifted by+900 , or
• Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right. alternatively, a sine wave a cosine wave shifted by−900 .
Mathematical equation for a waveform shifted to left cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 = sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 + 900 )
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃) sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 = cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 − 900 )
• Mathematical equation for waveform shifted to right • Phase difference refers to the angular displacement
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃) between different waveforms of the same frequency.

• If the angular displacement between two wave forms is

00 the waveforms are said to be in phase; otherwise,

Fig.4. 3 Phase shifted sine waves.

they are out of phase.

12/18/2019
Million .G
9
 Cont’d
When describing a phase difference, select one
waveform as reference. Other waveforms then lead, The effective value of a sine wave can be determined
lag, or are in phase with this reference. using the circuits of fig 4.5

Consider a sinusoidal varying current i(t). By

definition, the effective value of i is that value of dc
current that produces the same average power.

Fig.4. 4: Illustrating phase difference Consider (b). Let the dc source be adjusted until its
Effective value (rms) average power is the same as the average power in (a).
An effective value is an equivalent dc value: it tells us The resulting dc current is then the effective value of
how many volts or Amps of dc that a time-varying
the current of (a). To determine this value, determine
waveform is equal to in terms of its ability to produce
average power. A familiar example of such a value is the the average power for both cases, then equate them.
value of the voltage at the wall outlet in your home.

12/18/2019
Million .G
10
 Cont’d
2 1
sin ωt = 1 − cos2ωt (trigonometric identity)
2
2 1
Therefore, Pac = Im [ (1 − cos2ωt)]R
2
Im2 Im2
Pac = R − Rcos2ωt
2 2
To get the average of P(t), note that the average of
cos2ωt is zero and thus the last term of the above
equation drops off leaving
Determining the effective value of a sinusoidal ac.
im2
First, consider the dc case. Since current is constant, power Pavg = R
2
is constant and average power is Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷 = 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹 to that delivered by the dc source.
Now consider the ac case. Power to the resistor at any value 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
of time is P(t) i2R, where i is the instantaneous value of
Im2
current. R = Idc 2 R and Im = 2 Idc
2
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂= (𝒊𝒊𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 )𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹 = (𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔)𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹 = 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎 𝑹𝑹 Im
Idc = = 0.0707Im
2
12/18/2019
Million .G
11
 Cont’d
In word it can be stated that, states that the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is 1/ 𝟐𝟐 or 0.707 of
its maximum value. In summery, 𝑰𝑰𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝑰𝑰𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 and 𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎
Example 1. An alternating voltage is given by v(t) = 282.8sin314t V. Find
(a) The rms voltage
(b) Average voltage
(c) The frequency and
(d) The instantaneous value of voltage at t=4ms.
The general expression for an alternating voltage is: v = Vm sin(ωt ± θ)
average voltage = 0.637 ∗ Vm = 0.637 ∗ 282.8 = 180.14V

314
f= = 50Hz
2π
at t = 4ms, v = 282.8sin 314 ∗ 4 ∗ 10−3 = 268.9 V

12/18/2019
Million .G
12
 Cont’d
Example 3. An alternating voltage is given by v = 75sin 200πt − 300 V. The Find
(a) the amplitude,
(b) the peak-to-peak value,
(c) the rms value, (d) the periodic time, (e) the frequency, (f) the phase angle relative to 75𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠200𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Solution:
Comparing v = 75sin 200πt − 300 V with the general expression v = Vm sin(ωt ± θ) gives:
a. amplitude, or peak value = 75 V
b. peak − to − peak value = 2 ∗ 75 = 150V
c. the rms value = 0.707 ∗ maximum value = 0.707 ∗ 75 = 150V
rad 2π 2π
d. angular velocity, ω = 200π . Hence periodic time , T = = = 10ms
s ω 200π

1 1
e. frequency, f = = = 100Hz
T 0.01

f. phase angle θ = 300 lagging 75sin200πt

12/18/2019
Million .G
13
 Exercise 1
1. If you double the rotational speed of an AC generator, what happens to the frequency and period of the
waveform?
2. A 10Hz sinusoidal current has a value of 5A at t=25ms. What is its value at t=75ms?
3. Determine the phase relationship between voltage and current given by the following equations:
v = 50sin ωt + 200 V and i = 10cos(ωt − 450 )A
4. A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30A and a frequency of 60Hz. At time t=0, the current is zero. Express
the instantaneous current in the form i = Im sinωt.
5. An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of 20ms and a maximum value of 200V. When time t=0, v=-75V.
Deduce a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one cycle of the voltage showing important points.
6. An alternating voltage is represented by v = 20sin(300πt + 250 ) V. find (a) the maximum value (b) the
frequency (c) the periodic time (d) rms value (e) average value.

12/18/2019
Million .G
14
 3. Complex number review
• A complex number is a number of the form 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑎𝑎 + Conversion between two forms

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗, where a and b are real numbers and 𝑗𝑗 = −1. The two forms are related by the following equation,
Rectangular to polar
• Complex numbers may be represented geometrically,
either in rectangular form or in polar form as points on C= a2 + b 2

a two-dimensional plane called the complex plane. b

θ= tan−1
a
• we can represent complex number in rectangular form
Polar to rectangular
or polar form
a = Ccosθ
b = Csinθ

12/18/2019
Million .G
15
 Cont’d
M a t h e m a t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s wi t h c o m p l e x n u m b e r Addition
Let us first examine the symbol j associated with
To add two or more complex numbers, simply add the
imaginary numbers by definition,
real and imaginary parts separately.
2 1
j = −1, j = −1 , = −j if C1 = a1 + jb1 and C2 = a2 + jb2 then,
j

Complex conjugate C1 + C2 = (a1 +a2 ) + j(b1 + b2 )

The conjugate or complex conjugate of a complex Subtraction

number can be found by simply changing the sign of if C1 = a1 + jb1 and C2 = a2 + jb2
the imaginary part in the rectangular form or by
Then C1 − C2 = a1 − a2 + j(b1 − b2 )
using the negative of the angle of the polar form.
Addition or subtraction can not be performed in polar
The conjugate of C = a + jb is C = a − jb
form unless the complex numbers have the same angle θ.
The conjugate of C= C < θ is C= C < −θ
12/18/2019
Million .G
16
 Cont’d
Multiplication Division
To multiply two complex numbers in rectangular To divide two complex numbers in rectangular form,

form, multiply the real and imaginary parts of one in multiply the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator and resulting real and
turn by the imaginary parts of the other.
imaginary parts collected. That is, if
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 and 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 and 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
Then 𝐶𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 ∗ 𝑗𝑗(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 )
𝐶𝐶1 𝑎𝑎1 +𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 ∗𝑗𝑗(𝑎𝑎2 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 ) 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 +𝑏𝑏2 +𝑗𝑗(𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎2 −𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2 )
𝐶𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2 ) = =
𝐶𝐶2 𝑎𝑎2 +𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏2 ∗𝑗𝑗(𝑎𝑎2 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 ) 𝑎𝑎2 2 +𝑏𝑏2 2

To multiply two complex numbers in polar form, In polar form, division is accomplished by simply dividing
multiply magnitudes and add angles algebraically. the magnitude of the numerator by the magnitude of the
denominator and subtracting the angle of the denominator
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶1 =< 𝜃𝜃1 and 𝐶𝐶2 =< 𝜃𝜃2 from the numerator. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝐶1 =< 𝜃𝜃1 and 𝐶𝐶2 =< 𝜃𝜃2

Then 𝐶𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝐶𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶𝐶2 < 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 𝐶𝐶1

=
𝐶𝐶1
< 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2
𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶2
12/18/2019
Million .G
17
 4. AC circuits
Resistance in AC circuit (pure
 R, L and C circuit elements each have quite resistive circuit)
different electrical properties.

 Resistance, for example, opposes current, while

inductance opposes changes in current and
capacitance opposes change in voltage.

 These differences result in quite different Fig.4. 7: Pure resistive circuit

voltage-current relationships.  In a pure resistive circuit current is in phase
with voltage.
 The relation illustrated in fig4.7 can be stated
mathematical as:
𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎
𝒊𝒊𝑹𝑹 = = = 𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔, where, 𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 =
𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹
12/18/2019
Million .G
18
 Cont’d
Inductance in AC circuit Inductive reactance(X L )
• From the above equation 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 .

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
Thus = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚

• This ratio is defined as inductive reactance and is given by the

symbol XL. since the ratio of volts to amps is ohms, reactance
Fig.4. 8: pure inductive circuit
For an ideal inductor, voltage VL is proportional to the rate of change of has units of ohms.
current. Because of this, voltage and current are not in phase as they are 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
Thus 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = = 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
for a resistive circuit.
𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝒊𝒊𝑳𝑳 𝒅𝒅 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳 = = 𝑳𝑳 𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
But, 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Where 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
Utilizing the trigonometric identity 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 900 ), you can 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (Ω)
write this as:
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 900 ) • Reactance XL represents the opposition that inductance
For a pure inductive circuit current lags voltage by 900. presents to current for the sinusoidal as case.

12/18/2019
Million .G
19
 Cont’d
• We now have everything that we need to solve
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
simple inductive circuits with sinusoidal excitation,
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 20 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠 0.5𝐻𝐻 = 10Ω
that is ,we know that current lags voltage by 900
𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 100𝑉𝑉
and that their amplitudes are related by 𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 = = = 10𝐴𝐴 we know that i lags v by 900.
𝑿𝑿𝑳𝑳 10Ω

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 Therefore,
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 =
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑖𝑖 = 10sin(20𝑡𝑡 − 900 ) A
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚= 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

Example 4. A 0.5H inductor is connected across AC

source. If the voltage across the inductor is 𝑣𝑣 =
100𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠20𝑡𝑡, then determine the inductive reactance and
write the expression for the current.

12/18/2019
Million .G
20
C a p a c i t a n c e i n A c c i r c u i t ( p u r e c a p a c i t i v e
c i r c u i t )
Capacitive reactance (X C )
• Now consider the relationship between maximum capacitor
voltage and current magnitudes.
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 1
Fig.4. 9: pure capacitive circuit =
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• For capacitance, current is proportional to the rate for change of
• The ratio of Vm to Im is defined as capacitive reactance and
𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑
voltage. 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is given by:
𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 where 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 1
• Using the appropriate trigonometric identity(cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 = = (Ω)
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
900 )), the above equation can be written as 1
𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 = But, ω=2πf
𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 900 ) 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

1
• For a purely capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 900. • Thus, 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = (Ω)
2Π𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

12/18/2019
Million .G
21
 Cont’d
• Reactance XC represents the opposition that Example 3. A 1µFcapacitor is connected across AC
capacitance presents to current for the source. If the voltage across the capacitor is 𝑣𝑣 =
sinusoidal ac case. 30𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠400𝑡𝑡, determine the capacitive reactance and write

• We now have everything that enable us to solve the expression for the current.

simple capacitive circuits with sinusoidal 1 106

𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = Ω = 2500Ω
excitation. i.e., we know that current leads voltage 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 400

by 900 and that. 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 30𝑉𝑉

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = = = 12𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 2500Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = and 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
and we know that for capacitor i leads v by 900.
Therefore,
𝑖𝑖 = 12 sin 400𝑡𝑡 + 900 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

12/18/2019
Million .G
22
 A C s e r i e s a n d p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t

AC series circuit Z = Z < ϕ (Ω)

• Differ from DC circuit, when working with AC circuits we • The value Z is the magnitude(in ohms) of the impedance
no longer work with only resistance, but also with capacitive vector Z and is determined as:
and inductive reactance. Z= R2 + X 2 (Ω)
Impedance • The corresponding angle of the impedance vector is

• Impedance is a term used to collectively determine how the determined as:

resistance, capacitance, and inductance “impede” the current X

ϕ= ± tan−1 ( )
in ac circuit. R

• The rectangular form of impedance is written as:

• The symbol for impedance is the letter Z & the unit is the Ω.
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗, Where R is resistance and X is reactance
• Because impedance may be made up of any combination of
(XL or XC).
resistance and reactance, it is written as a vector quantity Z,
• If we are given the polar form of the impedance, then we
the polar form impedance is written as:
can determine the equivalent rectangular expression form
12/18/2019
Million .G
23
as:
 C o n t ’ d

Mathematically, each of the vector impedance is written as:

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 and 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅 < 00 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗0 = 𝑅𝑅

𝑋𝑋 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 900 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐿𝐿

𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < −900 = 0 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

R-L circuit

RL circuit is the combination of resistive and inductive

load.
Fig.4. 10: Impedance diagram

 Resistive impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 is a vector having a magnitude of R

along the positive real axis, Inductive impedance 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 is a
vector having a magnitude of 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 along the positive imaginary
axis, while the capacitive impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 is a vector having a
Fig.4. 11: RL circuit
magnitude of 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 along the negative imaginary axis.
12/18/2019
Million .G
24
 C o n t ’ d

In RL circuit the total impedance Z is The total circuit current (i):

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍 < −1
tan ( ) 𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅 𝒊𝒊 = = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐
𝒁𝒁 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 < 𝜙𝜙1 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠

𝑖𝑖 = = < 𝜙𝜙1 − 𝜙𝜙2
𝑍𝑍 < 𝜙𝜙2 𝑍𝑍
Example 4. A 4Ω resistor and a 9.55mH inductor are
connected in series with 240 V, 50 Hz AC source.
Fig.4. 12: (a) Impedance diagram (b) Phasor diagram
Calculate,
Voltage across resistor(R) and indictor (L) can be determined as:
(a) Inductive reactance
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 (b) The impedance,
Thus the total voltage (supply voltage, Vs)
(c) The total current, and
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
(d) Draw impedance and phasor diagram.
12/18/2019
Million .G
25
 C o n t ’ d

a. Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π 50 9.55 ∗ 10−3 = 3Ω R-C circuit

b. Impedance, Z = R2 + XL 2 = 42 + 32 = 5Ω

v 240V
c. Current, i = = = 48A
z 5Ω

−1 XL −1 3
d. ϕ = tan = tan = 36.870 lagging
R 4 Fig.4. 13: RC circuit
VR = i ∗ R = 48 ∗ 4 = 192 < 0 V In RC circuit the total impedance Z is written as:
VL = i ∗ XL = 48 ∗ 3 = 144V but VL = 144 < 900 V 𝑋𝑋
−1 𝐶𝐶
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍 < tan ( )
𝑅𝑅

Therefore, in the above example current lags voltage by 36.870 Fig.4. 14: (a) Impedance diagram (b) Phasor diagram
12/18/2019
Million .G
26
 C o n t ’ d

 Voltage across resistor(R) and capacitor (C) Example 5. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a
capacitor of 45µF. calculate (a) the impedance, (b) the current
can be determined as
taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply. Find also the phase angle
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅
between the supply voltage and the current.
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
1 1
Thus the total voltage (supply voltage, Vs) Capacitive reactance, Xc = =
2πfC 2π 50 (45 ∗ 10−6 )

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 70.74 Ω

The total circuit current (IT): Impedance Z = R2 + X C 2 = 252 + 70.742 = 75.03Ω

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 V 240V
𝑖𝑖 = = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 Current, i = = = 3.2A
𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 Z 75.03Ω

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 < 𝜙𝜙1 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 Phase angle between the supply voltage and current ϕ =
𝑖𝑖 = = < 𝜙𝜙1 + 𝜙𝜙2
𝑍𝑍 < −𝜙𝜙2 𝑍𝑍 tan−1 XC
=
70.74
= 70.540 leading. i.e., current leads supply
R 25

voltage by 70.540
12/18/2019
.G
12/18/2019
Million
27
 C o n t ’ d

Series RLC circuit Example 7. A 5Ω resistor, 120mH inductor and 100µF

capacitor are connected in series to a 300V, 50Hz AC supply.
Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b) the phase difference
between the supply voltage and current, (c) the voltage across

Fig.4. 15: RLC circuit the circuit elements, and (d) draw the phasor and impedance

In RLC circuit the total impedance Z written as diagram.

𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 2𝜋𝜋 50 120 ∗ 10−3 = 37.70Ω
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )
1 1
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = −6
= 31.83Ω
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 50 (100 ∗ 10 )

Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 37.7 − 31.83 = 5.87Ω

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑍𝑍) = 𝑅𝑅2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 −𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2 = 52 + 5.872

Fig.4. 16: (a) Impedance diagram (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ) &
impedance diagram (for𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ) = 7.71Ω
12/18/2019
Million .G
28
 C o n t ’ d

𝑣𝑣 300
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑖𝑖) = = = 38.91𝐴𝐴
𝑧𝑧 7.71

−1
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿−𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙 = tan ( )
𝑅𝑅
5.87
= tan−1 ( ) = 49.580
5
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑅𝑅 = 38.91𝐴𝐴 ∗ 5Ω = 194.55𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 38.91 ∗ 37.7 = 1466.9𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 38.91 ∗ 31.83Ω = 1238.5V

12/18/2019
Million .G
29
 C o n t ’ d
P a r a l l e l R L C c i rc u i t • The admittance of resistor R is called conductance
and is given a symbol YR.

1
𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 = = 𝐺𝐺 < 00 = 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗0
𝑅𝑅<00

Fig.4. 18: RLC circuit • The admittance of a purely reactive component X is

Admittance called susceptance of the component and is assigned

• Admittance is defined as a vector quantity which is the the symbol B.

reciprocal of the impedance Z. • The unit for susceptance is Siemens (S).

• Mathematically, admittance is expressed as:
• In order to distinguish between inductive susceptance
1 1 1
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = = = < −𝜃𝜃 = 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 < −𝜃𝜃. The unit of and capacitive susceptance, we use the subscripts L
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇<𝜃𝜃 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
and C respectively.
admittance is the Siemens(S).

12/18/2019
Million .G
30
 C o n t ’ d
1 1
𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 =
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 90 0
=
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
< −90 0
= 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 < −900
= 0 − 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 The total impedance (ZT) in parallel RLC circuit can be
1 1
𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶 = = < 90 0 = 𝐵𝐵 < 900 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵
𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶
calculated as:
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < −900 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = 𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 + 𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 + 𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶

1
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 =
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇

The total current (𝑖𝑖𝑇𝑇 )

Fig Admittance diagram 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇 = = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇

12/18/2019
Million .G
31
 Exercise 2
1.Calculate the current taken by 23µF capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
2.A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance and the resulting current if
connected to (a) 240 V, 50Hz supply and (b) a 100 V, 1 kHz supply.
3.A coil of inductance 300mH and negligible resistance is connected in series with 100Ω resistor to a 250V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate (a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d) voltage
across each component and (e) the circuit phase phase angle.
4.A capacitor C is connected in series with a 40Ω resistor across a supply of frequency 60Hz. A current of 3A flows and
circuit impedance is 50Ω. Calculate (a) the value of capacitance, C, (b) the supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between the
supply voltage and current, (d) voltage across the resistor and capacitor, and (e) draw phasor and impedance diagram.
5.A 40µF capacitor in series with a coil of resistance 8Ω and inductance 80mH is connected to a 200V, 100Hz supply.
Calculate (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the phase angle between voltage and current, (d) the
voltage across the coil, and the resistor, (e) the voltage across the capacitor, and (f) draw the phasor and impedance
diagram.

12/18/2019
Million .G
32
 5 . F r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e

• As we have already seen, the reactance of inductors The total impedance of the circuit is a vector quantity & given

and capacitors depends on frequency. as:

• Consequently, the total impedance of any network 1 1

ZT = R − j =R+
ωC jωC
having reactive elements is also frequency
dependent. 1 + jωRC
ZT =
jωC
Effect of frequency in RC circuit
In electrical engineering, a cutoff frequency, corner
frequency, or break frequency is a boundary in a
system's frequency response at which energy flowing through
Fig.4. 19: RC circuit
the system begins to be reduced (attenuated or reflected) rather
Consider the RC series circuit of the fig 4.19. Recall that the
than passing through.
capacitive reactance, XC is given as:
If we define the cutoff or corner frequency for an RC circuit as
1 1
𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 = = 1 1
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ωc = or equivalently ω = Hz.
RC 2πfc
12/18/2019
Million .G
33
 C o n t ’ d

Then several important points become evident.

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜔𝜔 ≤
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓 ≤ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎:
10
1 + 𝑗𝑗0 1
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = =
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜔𝜔 ≥ 10𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = = 𝑅𝑅
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
If the magnitude of the impedance ZT plotted as a
function of angular frequency ω, we get the graph of fig
Fig.4. 20: Impedance versus angular frequency of RC circuit
4.20.
 The graph illustrates that the reactance of a capacitor is
very high (effectively an open circuit) at low frequencies.
 Consequently, the total impedance of the series circuit will
also be very high at low frequencies.
12/18/2019
Million .G
34
 C o n t ’ d
 Secondly, we notice that as the frequency increases, We define the cutoff or corner frequency for an RL circuit
R 1
the reactance decreases. as ωC = or fC = .
L 2πL

 Therefore, as the frequency gets higher, the Several important points become evident that, for ω ≤
ωc fC
capacitive reactance has a diminished effect in the or f ≤ . The total impedance can be expressed as:
10 10

circuit.
jωL
Effect of frequency in RL circuit ZT = = jωL
1 + j0
The above result indicates that for low frequencies, the
inductor has a very small reactance, resulting in total
impedance which is essentially equal to the inductive
• The total impedance of the parallel circuit is found
reactance.
as follows:
for ω ≥ 10ωC ZT can be simplified as
ZR ZL R(jωL) jωL
ZT = = =
ZR + ZL R + jωL 1 + jω L
R jωL
ZT = =R
L
12/18/2019 0 + jω 35
Million .G R
 C o n t ’ d
 The above results indicate that for high frequencies, the Resonance circuits
impedance of the circuit is essentially equal to the A. Series Resonance
resistance, due to the very high impedance of the • The most prominent feature of the frequency response
inductor. of a circuit may be the sharp peak (or resonant peak)
 When the magnitude of the impedance ZT is plotted as a exhibited in its amplitude characteristic.
function of angular frequency ω we get the graph. • The concept of resonance applies in several areas of
science and engineering.
• Resonance occurs in any system that has a complex
conjugate pair of poles; it is the cause of oscillations
of stored energy from one form to another.
• It is the phenomenon that allows frequency
discrimination in communications networks.
Fig.4. 21: Impedance versus angular frequency for the parallel RL circuit
• Resonance occurs in any circuit that has at least one
12/18/2019 inductor and one capacitor. 36
Million .G
 C o n t ’ d

o Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which The input impedance is

the capacitive and inductive reactance are equal in 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 1 1

𝑍𝑍 = 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − )
magnitude, there by resulting in a purely resistive 𝐼𝐼 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

impedance. Resonance results when the imaginary part of the transfer

o Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.22 in function is zero, or

the frequency domain. 1

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − =0
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
The value of ω that satisfies this condition is called the
resonant frequency 𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎 . Thus, the resonance condition is
shown in Fig. 4.22.
1
𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿 =
𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
Fig.4. 22: The series resonant circuit. 1
𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠. 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜔𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓0 ,
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
1
𝑓𝑓0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
2𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
12/18/2019
Million .G
37
 C o n t ’ d

 The plot only shows the symmetry illustrated in this  The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance,

graph when the frequency axis is a logarithm. when 𝐈𝐈 =

Vm
, so that
R
1 Vm 2
p ωo =
2 R
 At certain frequencies ω = ω1, ω2, the dissipated power
is half the maximum value; that is,
(𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 / 2)2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2
𝑃𝑃 𝜔𝜔1 = 𝑃𝑃 𝜔𝜔2 = =
2𝑅𝑅 4𝑅𝑅

 Hence, ω1 and ω2 are called the half-power

frequencies.

Fig.4. 23: The current amplitude versus frequency for the series  The half-power frequencies are obtained by setting Z
resonant circuit of Fig. 4.22. equal to 2R, and writing
 The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is
1 2 1 2
p ω = I R 𝑅𝑅2 + (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − ) = 2𝑅𝑅
2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
12/18/2019
Million .G
38
 C o n t ’ d
 Solving for ω, we obtain  However, as will be explained shortly, symmetry of the
𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 half-power frequencies around the resonant frequency is
𝝎𝝎𝟏𝟏 = − + ( ) +
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
often a reasonable approximation.
𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏  Although the height of the curve in Fig. 4.23 is
𝝎𝝎𝟐𝟐 = + ( ) +
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
determined by R, the width of the curve depends on other
 We can relate the half-power frequencies with the
factors.
resonant frequency.
 The width of the response curve depends on the
𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎 = 𝝎𝝎𝟏𝟏 𝝎𝝎𝟐𝟐
bandwidth B, which is defined as the difference between
 Showing that the resonant frequency is the geometric
the two half-power frequencies,
mean of the half power frequencies.
 𝑩𝑩 = 𝝎𝝎𝟐𝟐 −𝝎𝝎𝟏𝟏
 Notice that 𝜔𝜔1 and ω2 are in general not symmetrical
around the resonant frequency 𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎 , because the
frequency response is not generally symmetrical.

12/18/2019
Million .G
39
 Quality factor
 The “sharpness” of the resonance in a resonant circuit is measured quantitatively by the quality factor Q.
 At resonance, the reactive energy in the circuit oscillates between the inductor and the capacitor.
 The quality factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored to the energy dissipated in the circuit per cycle of oscillation:

𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

𝐐𝐐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
 It is also regarded as a measure of the energy storage property of a circuit in relation to its energy dissipation property.
1
 In the series RLC circuit, the peak energy stored is 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼 2 , while the energy dissipated in one period is. (Hint: Energy =power*time)
2
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
𝑰𝑰 𝑹𝑹 ( )
𝟐𝟐 𝒇𝒇
1 2
LI 2π𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Hence, Q = 2π 2
1 2 1 = (@ resonance 2π𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝝎𝝎𝒐𝒐 )
I R( ) 𝑅𝑅
2 f
𝝎𝝎𝒐𝒐 𝑳𝑳 𝟏𝟏
𝐐𝐐 = =
𝑹𝑹 𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
 Notice that the quality factor is dimensionless. The relationship between the bandwidth B and the quality factor Q is obtained by
𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝐵𝐵 = = or 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
12/18/2019
Million .G
𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄 40
 C o n t ’ d
 Thus, the quality factor of a resonant circuit is the ratio
of its resonant frequency to its bandwidth.
 As illustrated in Fig. below the higher the value of Q,
the more selective the circuit is but the smaller the
bandwidth.
 The selectivity of an RLC circuit is the ability of the
circuit to respond to a certain frequency and
discriminate against all other frequencies.
 If the band of frequencies to be selected or rejected is
Fig.4. 24: The higher the circuit Q, the smaller the bandwidth.
narrow, the quality factor of the resonant circuit must be
high. • A resonant circuit is designed to operate at or near its
 If the band of frequencies is wide, the quality factor resonant frequency.
must be low.
• It is said to be a high-Q circuit when its quality
12/18/2019
Million .G factor is equal to or greater than 10. 41
 C o n t ’ d
Solution:
For high-Q circuits (Q ≥ 10), the half power frequencies
(a)The resonant frequency is
are, for all practical purposes, symmetrical around the
resonant frequency and can be approximated as

The lower half-power frequency is

Example: 8
In the circuit in Fig. below, R = 2 &, L = 1 mH, and C = 0.4 μF.
(a) Find the resonant frequency and the half-power frequencies.
(b) Calculate the quality factor and bandwidth.
(c) Determine the amplitude of 20 sin vt the current at ω0, ω1,
and ω2.

12/18/2019
Million .G
42
 C o n t ’ d
Method 2 Alternatively, we could find PARALLEL RESONANCE
The parallel RLC circuit in Fig. 14.25 is the dual of the
series RLC circuit. So we will avoid needless repetition.

Fig.4. 25: the parallel resonant circuit.

The admittance is
1 1
Y = 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = I / V = + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 +
𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
1 1
Y = 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = + 𝑗𝑗(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − )
𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of Y is zero,
1
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − =0
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
1
𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
12/18/2019
Million .G
43
 C o n t ’ d
The voltage |V| is sketched in Fig. 14.26 as a function of
1 1 2 1
frequency. Notice that at resonance, the parallel LC 𝜔𝜔1 = − + ( ) +
2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
combination acts like an open circuit, so that the entire 2
1 1 1
currents flows through R. 𝜔𝜔2 = + +
2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
1
𝐵𝐵 = 𝜔𝜔2 − 𝜔𝜔1 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅
𝑄𝑄 = = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐵𝐵 𝜔𝜔0 𝐿𝐿
We can express the half-power frequencies in terms of the
quality factor. The result is
1 2 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 2 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜
Fig.4. 26: The voltage amplitude versus frequency for the 𝜔𝜔1 = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 + − , 𝜔𝜔2 = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 + +
2𝑄𝑄 2𝑄𝑄 2𝑄𝑄 2𝑄𝑄
series resonant circuit of Fig. 4.25
By replacing R, L, and C in the expressions for the series Again, for high-Q circuits (Q ≥ 10)
circuit with 1/R, 1/C, and 1/L respectively, we obtain for the 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵
𝜔𝜔1 ≅ 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 − , 𝜔𝜔2 ≅ 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 +
parallel circuit 2 2
12/18/2019
Million .G
44
 Cont’d
Summary of the characteristics of resonant RLC circuits.
Characteristic Series circuit Parallel circuit
1 1
Resonant frequency, ω0
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿 1 𝑅𝑅
Quality factor, Q 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿

𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜
Bandwidth, B
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄

1 2 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 2 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜
Half-power frequencies, ω1, ω2 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 + ± 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 1 + ±
2𝑄𝑄 2𝑄𝑄 2𝑄𝑄 2𝑄𝑄

𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵
For Q ≥ 10, ω1, ω2 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 ± 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 ±
2 2

12/18/2019
Million .G
45
 E x a m p l e : 9
In the parallel RLC circuit shown below, let R = 8 k&, L =
0.2 mH, and C = 8 μF. (a) Calculate ωo, Q, and B. (b) Find
ω1 and ω2. (c) Determine the power dissipated at ωo, ω1,
and ω2.

12/18/2019
Million .G
46
 A C p o w e r s

Instantaneous and average power Where Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values), and θv and θi
are the phase angles of the voltage and current, respectively.
The instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is
The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is
the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the
= v(t)i(t) = VmIm cos(ωt + θv) cos(ωt + θi)…..(4.4)
element and the instantaneous current i(t) through it.
We apply the trigonometric identity
p(t) = v(t)i(t)…………………………………. (4.1) cos A cos B =
1
[cos( A − B) + cos( A + B)].........(4.5)
2
The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of And express Eq. (4.4) as
time. It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy. 1 1
p(t) = V I cos (θ − θ ) + V I cos ( 2wt + θ + θ )...........( 4.6 )
2 m m v i 2 m m v i
Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the
This shows us, the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part is
circuit be
constant or time independent. Its value depends on the phase
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv)………..….(4.2)
difference between the voltage and the current. The second part is a
i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi)………….…(4.3) sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2ω, which is twice the
angular frequency of the voltage or current. A sketch of in Eq. (4.5.6)
is shown in Fig below
12/18/2019
Million .G
47
 C o n t ’ d
Average power
• The instantaneous power changes with time and is
therefore difficult to measure.
• The average power is more convenient to measure.
• In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring
Fig.4. 27: The instantaneous power entering a circuit.
power, responds to average power.
• We also observe that power is positive for some part of each
• The average power is the average of the instantaneous
cycle and negative for the rest of the cycle.
power over one period.
• When power is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit.
• Thus, the average power is given be
• When power is negative, the power is absorbed by the source;
T
that is, power is transferred from the circuit to the source. 1
P (t ) =
T ∫ p(t )dt...............................(4.7)
• This is possible because of the storage elements (capacitors 0

and inductors) in the circuit.

12/18/2019
Million .G
48
 C o n t ’ d
Substituting in Eq. (4.6) into Eq. (4.7) gives 1
P = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i )
1 1
T
1 1
T 2
P = ∫ Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i )dt + ∫ Vm I m cos(2wt + θ v + θ i )dt
T 02 T 02 Complex power
T T
1 1 1 1
P = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) ∫ dt + Vm I m ∫ cos(2wt + θ v + θ i )dt......(4.8) The complex power S absorbed by the ac load is the
2 T0 2 T0
product of the voltage and the complex conjugate of the
• The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant
1 𝐕𝐕
is the same constant. current, (S = VI ∗ = Vrms Irms ) where Vrms = =
2 2
• The second integrand is a sinusoid. 𝐈𝐈
Vrms < θv and Irms = = Irms < θi , then
2
• We know that the average of a sinusoid over its period is zero
because the area under the sinusoid during a positive half- 𝑆𝑆 = 1 𝑽𝑽𝑰𝑰∗ = 𝑽𝑽𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑰𝑰∗𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 1 Vm I m ∠(θ v − θ i )
2 2
cycle is canceled by the area under it during the following 1 1
= Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) + j Vm I m sin(θ v − θ i )
2 2
negative half-cycle.
S = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i ) + jVrms I rms sin(θ v − θ i ) .
• Thus, the second term in Eq. (4.9) vanishes and the average
power becomes
12/18/2019 P Q 49
Million .G
 C o n t ’ d
2
Apparent power 2 V
S = I rms Z = rms

• We have seen that the magnitude of the complex power is Z*

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽
the apparent power; hence, the complex power is 2
S=I rms ( R + jX ) = P + jQ
measured in volt-amperes (VA).
• Also, we notice that the angle of the complex power is the Where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the
power factor angle. complex power and given by:
𝟐𝟐 R
𝐏𝐏 = 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 𝐒𝐒 = 𝐈𝐈𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫
• The apparent power is given by:
𝟐𝟐 𝐗𝐗
S = Vrms I rms 𝐐𝐐 = 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈(𝐒𝐒) = 𝐈𝐈𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫

• The complex power maybe expressed in terms of the load Active or real power
impedance Z. The load impedance Z may be written as The real power P is the average power in watts
V Vrms delivered to a load; it is the only useful power. It is the
Z = = ∠(θ v − θ i )
I I rms actual power dissipated by the load. P is the average or
Thus, 𝑽𝑽𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝒁𝒁𝑰𝑰𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 Substituting this into the above
real power and it depends on the load’s resistance R.
equation gives
12/18/2019 And is given by: P = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θi ) 50
Million .G
 C o n t ’ d
Reactive power

• The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange Notice that

between the source and the reactive part of the load. 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin(𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣 − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 )

• The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to a. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
distinguish it from the real power, whose unit is the watt. b. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
• We know that energy storage elements (capacitors and c. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
Summary
inductors) neither dissipate nor supply power, but
Complex Power = S = P + jQ = 1 VI*
exchange power back and forth with the rest of the 2
network. = Vrms I rms ∠θ v − θ I
• In the same way, the reactive power is being transferred Apparent Power = S = S = Vrms I rms = P 2 + Q 2
back and forth between the load and the source. Real Power = P = Re(S) = Scos( θ v − θi )
• It represents a lossless interchange between the load and
Reactive Power = Q = Im(S) = Ssin ( θ v − θi )
the source.
Power Factor = P = cos(θ v − θ i )
12/18/2019
Million .G
S 51
 C o n t ’ d
Power triangle
• As shown in Fig.4. 29, when S lies in the first quadrant,
• It is a standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the we have an inductive load and a lagging pf.
form of a triangle, known as the power triangle, shown • When S lies in the fourth quadrant, the load is
in Fig.4. 28(a). capacitive and the pf is leading.
• This is similar to the impedance triangle showing the
relationship between Z, R, and X, illustrated in Fig.4.
28 (b).
a b
• The power triangle has four items—the
Fig.4. 28: (a) power triangle (b) Impedance triangle
apparent/complex power, real power, reactive
power, and the power factor angle. Given two of
these items, the other two can easily be obtained from
the triangle.

12/18/2019
Million .G Fig.4. 29: power triangle 52
 P o w e r f a c t o r c o r r e c t i o n
• Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air
• Since most loads are inductive, as shown in Fig. 4.6.1(a),
conditioners, and refrigerators) and industrial loads
a load’s power factor is improved or corrected by
(such as induction motors) are inductive and operate at
deliberately installing a capacitor in parallel with the
a low lagging power factor.
load, as shown in Fig. 4.6.1(b).
• Although the inductive nature of the load cannot be
• The effect of adding the capacitor can be illustrated
changed, we can increase its power factor.
using either the power triangle or the phasor diagram of
• The process of increasing the power factor without the currents involved.
altering the voltage or current to the original load is
• Figure 4.6.2 shows the pf. correction, where it is
known as power factor correction.
assumed that the circuit in Fig. 4.6.1(a) has a power
• Alternatively, power factor correction may be viewed as factor of 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 (𝛉𝛉𝟏𝟏 ), while the one in Fig. 4.6.1(b) has a
the addition of a reactive element (usually a capacitor) power factor of 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 ).
in parallel with the load in order to make the power
factor closer to unity.
12/18/2019
Million .G
53
 C o n t ’ d
• It is evident from Fig. 4.6.2 that adding the capacitor has
caused the phase angle between the supplied voltage and
current to reduce from 𝜃𝜃1 to 𝜃𝜃2 , thereby increasing the pf.
a b • We also notice from the magnitudes of the vectors in Fig.
Fig. 4.6.1 Power factor correction: (a) original inductive load, 4.6.2 that with the same supplied voltage, the circuit in Fig.
b. Inductive load with improved power factor.
4.6.1(a) draws larger current than the current I drawn by the
circuit in Fig. 4.6.1(b).
• Power companies charge more for larger currents, because
they result in increased power losses (by a squared factor,
since ).
• Therefore, it is beneficial to both the power company and
Fig. 4.6.2 Phasor diagram showing the effect of adding a
capacitor in parallel with the inductive load the consumer that every effort is made to minimize current
level or keep the power factor as close to unity as possible.
12/18/2019
Million .G
54
 Cont’d
• By choosing a suitable size for the capacitor, the If we desire to increase the power factor from 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 to
current can be made to be completely in phase with 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 without altering the real power (i.e. 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆2 cos(𝜃𝜃2 ),
the voltage, implying unity power factor. Then the new reactive power:
• Consider the power triangle in Fig. 4.6.3. If the 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(𝜃𝜃2 ).
original inductive load has apparent power S1, then The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt
P = S1 cos θ 1
capacitor, that is,
Q1 = S1 sin θ 1 = P tan θ 1
2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 = 2 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
= 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
The value of the required shunt capacitance C is determined as:

𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝜃𝜃1 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝜃𝜃2

𝐶𝐶 = 2 = 2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜔𝜔 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜔𝜔

Fig 4.6.3 Power triangle illustrating power factor correction.

Million .G
55
 C o n t ’ d
2 2
• Note that the real power P dissipated by the load is Vrms Vrms
QL = =
not affected by the power factor correction because XL ωL
2
the average power due to the capacitance is zero. Vrms
L =
• Although the most common situation in practice is ωQ L
that of an inductive load, it is also possible that the
Q L = Q1 − Q2
load is capacitive, that is, the load is operating at a
leading power factor. Where, 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑄𝑄1 − 𝑄𝑄2 , the difference between the
new and old reactive powers.
• In this case, an inductor should be connected across
the load for power factor correction.
• The required shunt inductance L can be calculated
from:-

12/18/2019
Million .G
56
 Example:
When connected to a 120 V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load absorbs 4 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance necessary
to raise the pf to 0.95.

𝑆𝑆2
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐

𝑄𝑄1
𝑆𝑆2

𝜃𝜃1
𝜃𝜃2
𝑄𝑄2
P

Million .G
57
 A C C i r c u i t A n a l y s i s

12/18/2019
Million .G
58