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IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL 1

System Design and Realization of a Solar-Powered

Electric Vehicle Charging Station
Samir M. Shariff, Senior Member, IEEE, Mohammad Saad Alam, Senior Member, IEEE,
Furkan Ahmad , Student Member, IEEE, Yasser Rafat, M. Syed Jamil Asghar, Senior Member, IEEE,
and Saadullah Khan

Abstract—The alarming situation of global warming leads to sustainable solution to these issues. The need for a green and
the full adoption of the renewable energy-based transportation sustainable mode of transportation and the advancement of a
system. However, their sustainable deployment at a mass level battery technology has sparked interest in electric vehicles (EVs)
has been a challenging task. This article presents the design as-
pects and practical implementation of the modern solar-assisted as a viable mode of transportation.
level-2 electric vehicle charging station which is controlled by Due to the intermittent nature of the renewable energy par-
a Type-1 vehicle connector. The designed model is developed in ticularly solar photovoltaic (PV), storage technologies such as
MATLAB/Simulink environment, the circuit operation is examined batteries need to be deployed to smooth out the fluctuating
and its methodological model is derived to study the parametric power output. The battery pack of the EVs can be leveraged
design features. Furthermore, the complete hardware setup has
developed to test the performance of the power factor correction for this purpose making EVs more feasible than internal com-
under the steady-state condition with respect to variation in load bustion engine (ICE) vehicles. In this article, a 3 kW PV-EV
for the input of 3 kW, 230 Vrms at 1-phase, 50 Hz rated, and charger as recharging as well as discharging of the vehicle for
to produce a 48 V buck converter dc output. The 6.4 kW solar 3 kW rated power output. A pulsewidth modulation (PWM)-
photovoltaic (PV) charging station, installed at the Centre of Ad- based charging control strategy has been tested in the lab. As
vanced Research in Electrified Transportation building parking
area in Aligarh Muslim University campus, selected as a case site. EVs or PHEVs are equipped with high voltage batteries to
Moreover, the controller circuit is simulated in PROTEUS software increase the driving range and improve the fuel efficiency, a
and a prototype model has been tested in the lab. The study is universal input charging station for EVs is developed to deploy
performed on a 10 kWh lithium-ion battery pack on a bright sunny it commercially for the quicker appropriation of the electrified
day at standard test condition of the solar panel. transportation framework in the country.
Index Terms—Converter topology, electric vehicle (EV), EV Thus, in the last decade, numerous researchers have con-
charging infrastructure, solar photovoltaic (PV). tributed toward the technological advancements and fruitful
implementation of the solar-powered EV charging station. In
[2], a concept of grid-integrated solar PV-battery recharging
I. INTRODUCTION
framework to enhance the system reliability is proposed. In [3],
HE deterioration of air quality, issues of global warming,
T and continuous depletion of fossil fuels are serious issues
to consider. The conventional electricity generation sector and
an energy management system (EMS) for xEV-based charging
infrastructure integrated with an energy storage system (ESS) in
a smart microgrid environment is covered. Khan et al. [3] have
the transportation sector are the major contributors to these reviewed the various technique related to the solar-powered EV
issues. The advent of the renewable energy-based generation charging station. Shafaati Shemami et al. [4] and Luo et al.
and electrification of transportation fleet is aimed to provide a [5] present a vehicle-to-home strategy for utilizing distributed
generation such as the solar power to deal with the complexity
Manuscript received January 12, 2019; revised May 9, 2019 and July 7, 2019; of dynamic electricity prices.
accepted July 25, 2019. This work was supported in part by the Centre of Some other papers have also published in the literature in
Advanced Research in Electrified Transportation, Aligarh Muslim University, the context of EV-PV charging schemes. Thus, Sahoo et al. [6]
Aligarh, under FAME India Mission, and in part by the Department of Heavy
Industry, Government of India. (Corresponding author: Furkan Ahmad.) have studied the modeling of a solar PV-based EV charging
S. M. Shariff is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty that is suitable for dc quick charging arrangement in order
of Engineering, Taibah University, Medina 42353, Saudi Arabia (e-mail: to minimize the grid stress through a vehicle-to-grid scheme.
samshariff@yahoo.com).
M. S. Alam is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and the Centre of Ahmad et al. [7] have presented an optimal EMS for a coor-
Advanced Research in Electrified Transportation, Aligarh Muslim University, dinated charging scheme and the proposed methodology has
Aligarh 202002, India (e-mail: saad.alam@zhcet.ac.in). been practically realized by setting up a hardware model of
F. Ahmad, M. S. J. Asghar, and S. Khan are with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India a PV-based charging system. However, Cao et al. [8] have
(e-mail: furkanahmad@zhcet.ac.in; mjamil.ee@amu.ac.in; saadullahkhan@ examined the plug-in EVs integrated renewable energy source
zhcet.ac.in). for desirable cost and emission reductions. Furthermore, Muttaqi
Y. Rafat is with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh 202002, India (e-mail: Yasser.rafat@zhcet.ac.in). et al. [12] have proposed an algorithm for optimal schedul-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSYST.2019.2931880 ing of home-based EV charging. The proposed model also

1937-9234 © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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2 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

consist the forecasted renewable energy generation and home TABLE I

DAILY AVERAGE HOURS/MONTH OF SUNSHINE BY
demand. LATITUDE ALTITUDE (NREL DATA)
Furthermore, Konjedic et al. [9]–[11] have focused on the
optimal designing of the power electronic converter for the
solar-based charging station. The state-of-the-art technological
innovation in the field of the power electronics for the application
of the electrified transportation has been discussed in [13].
Mouli et al. [14] have presented a solar-powered battery
charging scheme under partial shading of solar panels. The
proposed system uses the Cauchy–Gaussian sine cosine opti-
mization method for the maximum power point tracking. In [15],
a direct solar-powered dc-EV recharging system has developed
which increases the overall efficiency by reducing the ac/dc charging load design, ESS and converter design, etc. Section VI
conversion stage. describes the modeling of the EV charger (bidirectional) con-
A large portion of [2]–[15] has devoted to introducing verter topology with complete design and working of the circuit.
scientific/logical approaches to deal with various design and Simulations of the converter and communication circuits are dis-
implementation issues. Besides, these works talk about hypo- cussed in Section VII. Section VIII represents the hardware setup
thetical instead of functional contextual investigations, utilizing with experimental results. Finally, Section IX draws the main
restricted and accepted information, as opposed to genuine and conclusions and contributions of this article with summarized
complete informational collections on account of this article. challenges and future work.
Again, while studying deeply the literature cited from [7] to
[13], the conclusion is that besides several novel techniques and II. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CHARGING STATION (SPVCS)
methods, the practical approach of a charging process control INSTALLED AT CARET, AMU
strategy has not fully been incorporated and implemented.
All these require study, design, and integration of an off-board According to meteorological data of selected site taken from
EV charger with solar photovoltaic as a charging source, real- the NREL, Aligarh, is situated 78 N, 27 E. The estimated
izing the need for sustainable deployment of EVs and PHEVs, values of “peak sun hours” (a numerical equivalent value for the
which is the focal point of this article. Subsequently, the key aggregated time in which averages solar intensity is 1 kWh/m2 )
contribution of this article is as follows. are listed in Table I. It is concluded that the average sunshine
1) This article presents practical design considerations for a hours is 7.4.
universal input EV battery charger to be used in a plug-in The system comprises of “6.4 kW solar PV-EV charging
hybrid vehicle. Stringent operating conditions were im- parking lot” working as a microgrid, consists of 20 solar panels
posed on the charger for applications in a solar-powered of Vikram Solar company (each panel rating is 320 Wp , 37 V,
plug-in EV. 8 A), covering an area of 56 × 16 = 896 ft2 . It can supply a
2) The EV battery charger circuit should be capable of charging load of 5–6 kW per day (8 h). The plant is installed in
maintaining a high power factor at the front end and CARET building parking area (see Fig. 1), AMU campus. The
the low ripple current at the output. For this purpose, a PV module electrical characteristics are calculated at standard
PWM boost rectifier cascaded with a bidirectional dc–dc test conditions, where the ambient temperature is 25 °C, irradi-
converter has been proposed in this article. Operation of ance (radiant flux) is 1000 W/m2 , and sun’s spectrum should be
the circuit has been analyzed and a mathematical model at AM 1.5. Installation and replacement cost, and operating and
for the charging operation in continuous conduction mode maintenance (O&M) cost per kW of solar PV are taken as INR
(CCM) is formulated. 60 000, INR 30 000, and INR 2000/year, respectively.
3) For the control of the vehicle charging circuit, a commonly
used PWM-based controller through Type-1 connector is III. PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR SPVCS OF EVS
implemented. Fig. 2 outlines the block schematics of the proposed charging
The rest of this article is organized by elaborating the text system installed in the university parking area. The charging sta-
in nine different segments as follows. Section II discusses the tion is supplied from two sources used for recharging the vehicles
design of the solar photovoltaic (SPV)-EV charging station parked under a shed, viz., the conventional utility grid electricity
installed at the Centre of Advanced Research in Electrified and also solar PV-based electricity. Hence, the charging station
Transportation (CARET), Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) supplies the solar power to the vehicles coming for charging by
campus and is taken as the case site for the study. Section III utilizing solar energy during the day time and the conventional
presents a comprehensive overview of the methodology adopted grid power in the night hours [16]. The PV system modeling
in this article. Section IV deals with the EV supply equipment depends on the components of the block that comprises the
(EVSE), its architecture, control process simulation, and testing connection under a PV framework, i.e., PV generator, charge
of a prototype model based on the combined charging system controller, battery storage, solar hybrid inverter, EV charger,
(CCS) protocol. Section V describes the design of the SPV-based and EV battery as a load. Every component will be analyzed
EV charging station. It comprises the PV generator design, EV and presented separately and as a whole in this article.
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SHARIFF et al.: SYSTEM DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF A SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION 3

Fig. 3. Vehicle charging system.

Fig. 1. Solar PV charging station at CARET, AMU, Aligarh.

Fig. 4. Type-1 conductive coupler.

the premises to the EV.” Essentially, the charging operation is

performed by the charger (onboard/off-board) [18] and other
equipment outside the vehicle chassis to deliver the electrical
energy required for recharging the lithium-ion (LI) battery pack.
Primarily the EVSE, specifically those for the use under the CCS
level 1 or level 2, is an equipment (for safety and protection
of the onboard charger), not a complete charger that connects
directly with the car battery pack, but the function is rather to
provide an interface for a power supply system to the charger
(onboard/off-board type) (see Fig. 3) [19].
Type-1 is a smart connector, which offers required protection
and control functions approved by International Electrotechnical
Fig. 2. Diagram showing the block elements of the SPVCS. Commission (IEC) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
standards where the vehicle is connected to the utility grid/solar
PV. Fig. 4 shows the control circuitry used for the EV charging
system. A number of other voluntary features for facilitating the
Fig. 2 shows the PV array, components of the solar conversion
procedure to be followed for guaranteeing the specific purpose
system and EV charging system, and the power flow. The black
by authorized users.
arrows represent the flow of the dc power produced by the PV
panels, whereas the blue arrows represent the flow of the ac
A. Signaling System Under the CCS Charging Standard
power drawn from the electric utility grid and the solar inverter.
The fluctuations and intermittency in a solar generation can be The CCS is based on open and universal standards for the
removed by the dc–dc charge controller and battery storage, EVs. The CCS combines single-phase with rapid three-phase
respectively. As the station is a standalone solar hybrid system charging using alternating current at a maximum of 43 kW,
(no grid reference is needed for the operation of the system), as well as direct current charging at a maximum of 200 kW
hence, the increased load demand can be met by the ac grid, but and the future perspective of up to 350 kW—all in a single
the surplus generation could not be sent back to the grid. system. Essentially, the standard outlines in what way an EV
The NEC-2017 Article-625 defines the EVSE as “The charging infrastructure communicates with, connect with, and
conductors, including the grounded, ungrounded, equipment control the charging of the car. Hence, the EVSE provides the
grounding, etc., the EV attachment plugs, connectors, and all linkage between the vehicle and the grid (household power) or
other devices, fittings, apparatus or power outlets specifically solar PV. It serves as a smart connector that “handshake” the
installed for delivering the electrical energy from the wiring of vehicle and communicates to enable safe charging.
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4 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

TABLE II
PWM-BASED CHARGING CONTROL STRATEGY
BASED ON THE CCS STANDARD [21]

the owner to determine the EVSE status. Hence, through these

colored indicators, the following mentioned states of charging
can convey easily (see Table II):
Fig. 5. Vehicle charging control architecture block schematic.
1) the charging station is active, i.e., ac supply is available;
2) the connector is connected to the vehicle, i.e., not charging
but connected mechanically;
3) charging starts, i.e., in progress through electrical
Now the Type-1 applies under the CCS protocol and has been connection;
adopted worldwide by all the passenger vehicles manufacturers 4) fault or alarm condition.
globally [21]. Different pin configurations are ac line 1 (Phase),
ac line 2 (Neutral), ground, control pilot, and proximity detection IV. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENT USED IN THE
signals, as shown in Fig. 4. PROPOSED ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SPVCS
Proximity-Earth (PE): To prevent the car movement as it is
connected with the EVSE. Herein, the design and description of different solar PV sys-
Control-Pilot (CP): A ± 12 V 1 kHz square wave pulse tem components for the EV charging application at the parking
signal is generated on the Pilot-Pin by the EVSE to sense and lot is presented. The proposed charging station is a photovoltaic
communicate the vehicle to control the charging process and grid connected power system operating in a hybrid mode. It is
check the maximum permissible current limit. basically an interconnected system of components that converts
Fig. 5 shows the charging controller circuit schematics. Var- directly solar irradiance into electricity and usually comprises
ious functions are performed through the EVSE by using the of the PV panels, utility grid, battery storage, converter system
relays of high power rating in the circuit. For safely operating (inverter, charge controller, etc.), EV charger (PFC rectifier, buck
the relay, a driver with a suitable protection circuit should be converter, etc.), and the system load (EV battery in this case)
applied [20] as the following. which are described one by one in the following sections.
1) An overcurrent relay (solid state type) for short circuit and
overload protection. A. Solar PV as Generating Source
2) An electronic contactor switch for latching-up the connec- The PV panel dimensions, solar radiation falling on the panel,
tor with the supply. and PV module temperature rise are the issues by which the solar
3) A controller circuitry which interfaces the onboard charger power output varies [22]. The power output can be calculated as
and provides line-to-ground fault protection (see ground-   
fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) in Fig. 5). 33 360d
Ppv (t) = CI (t) ISC 1 + cos
4) Displays and indicators on the peripheral to show the 1000 365
alarm status and help the users to understand the working × (sinϕsinδ + cosϕ cosδ cos (ωt)) (1)
sequence.
5) Connecting cable from the EVSE to the onboard recepta- ω = minutes before noon/4 (2)
cle in the vehicle chassis. δ = 23.45 Sin {360 (d + 284) /365} (3)
6) A female connector (conductive type) to plug into the male
counterpart on the vehicle. where Ppv (t) is the PV generated power as a function of time (t),
ISC is termed as a solar constant, and CI(t) is the clearing index
at t. Now, hour angle ω can be calculated by (2) (approximated
B. Operating Sequence of the PWM-Based Vehicle Charging as ±15°/h, + for morning and − for the afternoon), while the
Controller decline angle of the sun δ by (3) (d signifies the day). The
The charging sequence and its related system activities are geographical latitude is ϕ and 27° is taken (user dependent).
specified by the CCS protocol. Light emitting diode (LED) For the PV generation, consider an array of 20 panels (2 series
indicators viewed easily from a distant location could make modules × 10 parallel strings) where each panel is rated at
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SHARIFF et al.: SYSTEM DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF A SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION 5

Fig. 6. Charging profile based on the SOC of the LI battery pack [24]. Fig. 7. Frequency of the charging station usage.

300 WP . The performance and characteristics of this array are to utilize solar generation specifically for the PEV charging at
evaluated for a module temperature at 25 °C and specified values the parking lot without utilizing expansive ESS. The frequency
of solar irradiance, i.e., 100–1000 W/m2 [23]. of the charging station usage is represented in Fig. 7. Hence, the
Monthly average global horizontal irradiance data (from the idea of workplace daytime charging by utilizing the PV panels
NREL database) show that the SPV generation is more in May is examined in Fig. 7.
following April to June, whereas July to September leads to
lower power generation due to rain, and the lowest one recorded C. Battery Storage and Converter Design
during winter/foggy season (December to January). Another significant component of the solar PV off-grid system
is the battery storage. The storage is needed in such systems,
B. ESS as EV Charging Load owing to the variations in the PV generated output. When
There are few currently available EVs in India. These bat- sunlight is available, the photovoltaic system supplies the load
tery electric vehicles (BEVs) have 4–6 seat capacity with an directly and the surplus power is stored to the battery storage.
approx.120 km driving range. The LI battery pack, used as ESS, While during night hours, or when sunlight is not available, the
has a typical 11–13 kWh of capacity. The maximum speed is consumer load demand can be fulfilled by the battery storage.
120 km/h achieved by consuming 0.1 kWh/km energy. For a solar charging model, a separate battery bank (Lead Acid)
The energy supplied to the vehicle is defined by the difference as ESS is used. The nominal rating is 12 V × 4 = 48 V, and of
in the initial and final states-of-charge (SOC) of the battery 150 Ah (7.2 kWh). The rate of charging and discharging of a
pack. The mathematical expression for calculating Ereq (energy battery is a key parameter which decides its life and performance
required) for a specific type of BEV is and also affects the power output factor related to any battery
bank, as given in (5). The formula for the SOC calculation is
EEreq = ΔSOC · Cbat_BEV (4) given as

where E denotes the total of the energy and Cbat_Bus = Battery C Pcd Δ (t) ecd
SOC (t) = (1 − Q) SOC (t − 1) + (5)
rating for selected BEV (ΔSOC = 20% to 100% in this case). E
In light of the charging characteristics of a particular cell, where the SOCs, SOC (t) and SOC(t − 1), are calculated at a
the LI battery pack charging profile can be plotted as shown in time interval of (t) and (t−1), respectively, Q is the discharge rate
Fig. 6. per hour,pcd is the power of charging and discharging, ecd is the
1) Vehicle Parking Scenario: The study of vehicle parking efficiency of charging and discharging, and E denotes the total
statistics reveals how much time does one vehicle take for of the energy stored in the battery. The battery SOC is the key
charging and how many vehicles could be charged at a time per parameter which governs the charging time and energy required
day. Basically, it deals with the available solar generation, types by the vehicles parked for charging under the garage.
of charging (i.e., the voltage and power rating of the charger) and The converter system in the standalone solar PV necessitates a
the battery chemistry used in the EVs. It characterizes the four control strategy to be applied to all the supply systems that define
specialized guidelines of the charging stations that are presently the relations between different elements. The battery usage as
used, i.e., Level-1, Level-2, Level-3, and dc fast charging. an energy storage component necessitates the integration of
In India at the administrative level, especially in medium-scale the charge regulator (controller). The function of this device
organizations, a worker usually works for up to 11 h per day and is to manage the flow of energy in the PV source, battery
six days per week. The vast majority of the Indian organizations storage, and EV charging load by taking the data regarding the
and MNCs and government places will, in general, pursue five battery terminal voltage with the constraints of its minimum and
days, 8–9 h each day operating schedule. These perceptions maximum allowable limits.
demonstrate that vehicles are ordinarily parked for an adequate The converter system is for power conversion from ac-dc or
amount of time in a day to such an extent that it is conceivable vice-versa. The installation cost and replacement cost are, for
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6 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

diL1 VS (rL1 + rS1 )

= − iL1 . (7)
dt L1 L1
The output inductor current differential equation is
dIL2
(RC1 + RL2 ) IL2 + L2 + Rout Iout = VC1 (8)
dt
dIL2
L2 + (RC1 + RL2 ) IL2 IC2 RC2 + VC2 = VC1 . (9)
dt
Fig. 8. Solar PV-EV charging circuit topology [25]. The output voltage equations can be expressed as
Rout RC2 Rout
Vout = Rout Iout = IL2 + VC2 .
(RC2 + Rout ) (RC2 + Rout )
(10)
The dc bus capacitor voltage differential equation is
dVC1 dVC1 1
C1 = − iL2 =− iL2 . (11)
dt dt C1

Fig. 9. EV battery charger equivalent circuit.

The output capacitor voltage differential equation is
dVC2
iC2 = C2 (12)
1 kW of the converter, considered as INR 35 715 and INR 10 000, dt
respectively. A total of a 7 kW converter capacity is designed for VC2 + iC2 (rC2 + Rout ) = IL2 Rout
the simulation as the PV installed capacity is 6.4 kW, 15 years
inverter lifetime, and 91% efficiency are taken for this case. A VC2 Rout
iC2 = − + IL2 . (13)
rectifier capacity is considered to be 100% relative to the inverter rC2 + Rout rC2 + Rout
of 85% efficiency. A 1 kW converter O&M costs is INR 5000 Combining (12) and (13) results in
per year.
dVC2 1 Rout
=− VC2 + IL2 .
V. MODELING OF THE EV CHARGER CONVERTER TOPOLOGY dt C2 (rC2 + Rout ) C2 (rC2 + Rout )
The circuit topology made out of a bidirectional PWM boost (14)
rectifier (ac/dc) operates in cascade connection by means of a The boost mode working of the PWM rectifier depends on gate
bidirectional dc/dc converter to be proposed for the application pulse triggering of the individual switch combinations subjective
as the EV battery charging circuit, as shown in Fig. 8. to every switching sequence to trace the current through an
In this working condition, the PFC operation could be realized inductor by a sinusoidal curve defined by the digital signal pro-
through a PWM rectifier by operating it in a boost mode, whereas cessor (DSP)-based microcontroller. Due to the high-frequency
the buck operation could be realized through the dc/dc converter. switching pulses than that of line frequency (50 Hz), in one
In addition, hence, in a reverse mode of the operation, the dc/dc complete cycle, the PWM rectifier input voltage can be observed
converter function is in a boost mode while the rectifier operates as consistent. The operation of the circuit can be realized in
in an inverter mode. As the circuit runs mostly in the charging both, i.e., CCM and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM).
mode to charge a PHEV, the considerations of the circuit pa- Now in the DCM mode, the current through an inductor reaches
rameter will depend on the PWM rectifier in the boost operation zero at the end of every switching cycle. Contingent upon the
and the dc/dc converter in the buck condition. Subsequently, the rating of the boost inductor with a specified duty ratio, the PWM
practical design considerations for ratings of the components are rectifier could have the self PFC control which means the line
determined for the charging mode as it were. voltage should be in the same phase as the line input current
Here, switchesS1 , S2 , S3 , and S4 combines to the ac/dc boost with no regulation on the supply (input) side. Be that as it may,
rectifier (Qboost ), while S5 and S6 to the dc–dc buck converter in the DCM mode, due to the intermittency in the current input,
(Qbuck ). Therefore, depending on the operating conditions, the the capacitor rating at the dc bus should be sufficiently higher
charging circuit can operate in four different modes, i.e., when to maintain the balance of the power (at a particular instant)
both Qboost and Qbuck are ON and OFF, and when Qboost ON between the output and input. In the CCM mode, the higher
but Qbuck OFF or vice-versa, etc. The mathematical model (see rating of the capacitor at dc bus is additionally expected for
Fig. 9) of the components for the circuit operation when both reducing the ripple in dc bus voltage and, hence, eliminating the
are ON is as follows. low-pass filter circuit from the output side.
The input inductor current differential equation is The operation will likewise be examined in the accompanying
segments. As the given EV charging circuit is applicable for
diL1 moderately high power circuit, the CCM operating mode will
L1 + (rL1 + rS1 ) iL1 = VS (6)
dt be explained.
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SHARIFF et al.: SYSTEM DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF A SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION 7

A. Circuit Components Rating Considerations

The equivalent circuit is shown above (see Fig. 9) reveals that
the circuit proposed can be denoted by the cascade operation by
connecting the dc/ac PWM boost converter to the dc/dc buck
converter for the EV battery charging mode. Now, the circuit
parameters and its performance can be studied by examining
the commonly derived relations applicable to these circuits.
1) Inductor Design: There are two types of inductors used
in the circuit, dc (Buck) inductor and ac (Boost) inductor. The
ripple in the charging current of the battery is of much impor-
tance with the maximum allowable ripples is typically listed in
the manufacturers’ data sheet, whereas for the PFC criteria, the
current input has to be modified so that it is in the same phase
as the voltage. Now, as the battery terminal voltage output at
the buck converter should be constant, hence, the dc inductor
current (peak to peak value) ripple is characterized as
V2
VBUS dDC  (1 − dDC ) VB − VBUS
B

ΔIDC = = (15)
fs LDC fs LDC Fig. 10. Operation modes of the PWM boost rectifier.

where fs is the switching frequency.

The ripple content in the ac current of the inductor in the CCM
The second ripple in the capacitor at the dc bus fluctuates with
operating mode is characterized as
a frequency of switching set by the boost switch modulation. In
VS dAC  this case, the magnitude of the ripple is lesser than that in the
ΔIS = . (16) first one, yet its frequency is much higher
f s L1
ILDC dDC dAC 
For the higher ratings of L1 , the ripple content in the inductor ΔVBUS = . (18)
current reduces and the current input pursues the reference better. fs C1
Hence, the total harmonic distortion (THD) value also reduces The capacitor must be designed to tackle both the ripples.
(<5%). In this way, the rating of L1 must be characterized
for the maximum input voltage rating in which the ripples in B. Operation and Working of the PWM Boost Rectifier
the current will also be maximum. Higher fs value additionally
Fig. 10 demonstrates the four working conditions of the PWM
added the inductor core loss leading to the rise in the temperature.
rectifier [26]. Now, for Modes I and II, the ac source is shorted if
The higher current capacity needs thick winding wire
either pair of switches S2 − S4 or S1 − S3 is connected. In this
wounded on a sufficiently big core to avoid the saturation of
situation, H-bridge voltage input (Vbr ) is zero but the current
the core. Currently, a higher rating of the inductance implies a
through the inductor increases. For Mode III, switch pair S1 −
number of turns and, consequently, enough space for winding
S4 is connected and Vbr equals VBUS . In this operating mode,
resulting in a huge increment in the weight and size. Then again,
the load is associated with the input side. Mode IV is just like
the size could be decreased by applying higher fs (switching
Mode III, anyway for this situation, switch pair S2 − S3 is
frequency), given that the size of the core is sufficiently large
connected and Vbr equivalents to − VBUS [see Fig. 10(b)].
enough for accommodating more turns. As the dc/dc buck con-
Due to the unity power factor consideration, the input current
verter will work with smaller duty cycle, producing more losses
and voltage are in the same phase. Subsequently, the input power
in switching due to high fs , the efficiency of the converter will
and the output voltage of the PWM rectifier will oscillate twice
reduce.
comparing to line frequency as represented in Fig. 10(a).
2) Capacitor Design: In the unity PFC operation, as the input
Now the ripple in the output voltage of the PWM rectifier is so
voltage and current are in the same phase, the oscillations in
high that it cannot be applied directly to the EV battery, hence,
the input power are double the frequency of the line. Because
the second stage of the dc/dc (buck/boost) converter is desirable
of the constant load (dc power output), the voltage across the
for the EV charging circuit. The PWM boost rectifier simulation
capacitor terminal at the dc bus (VBUS ) rises by storing the
results are shown in Fig. 11.
surplus energy when the load demand is less than the supplied
power. Similarly, it releases its stored energy to discharge in
VI. SIMULATION RESULTS
the load as counter phenomena. Subsequently, VBUS likewise
oscillates at the second harmonic frequency of the fundamental The circuit schematics of the solar PV system of the PHEV
charging analyzed in Fig. 8, it is obligatory for simulation studies
Pm to be performed in MATLAB (Simulink) software program.
i.e. VBUS,AC ≈ sin (2ωt) . (17)
2ωC1 VBUS Hence, a correct realization of a solar off-grid PV-EV charging
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8 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

TABLE III
SIMULATION RESULT INDICATED IN THE SIMULATION MODEL

Fig. 11. PWM rectifier operation results are shown through simulation.
(a) Input current, input voltage, and dc bus voltage waveforms. (b) H-bridge
input voltage and input voltage.

Fig. 13. Signaling circuit simulation in PROTEUS software displaying the

LED condition.

Fig. 12. Simulation results for a solar-powered EV battery charger circuit.

(a) Input voltage and current graph. (b) DC bus voltage graph. (c) Output voltage
and current graph.

station in the real estimate of time might be achievable. The

performance of the EV charging system is limited by its output
power rating, i.e., the capacity to transfer the energy to charge the
EV battery pack on the specified rate determined by the battery
C rating. Fig. 14. Experimental setup and testing of a prototype hardware model in the
Fig. 12 presents the simulation results for a solar-powered EV hardware in loop (HIL) Lab, CARET at AMU.
EV battery charger circuit, viz., the input voltage and current
waveform, the dc bus voltage waveform, and the output voltage
and current waveform, respectively. In the proposed design of a and current waveform) is the output of the inverter which is
solar PV system, inverter modeling is not carried out. Its function 50 Hz, 230 VAC , and it is the input to the EV battery charger
is to perform dc to ac conversion of dc generated output by as well. Based on the information from simulation studies, a
solar panels. Generally, the inverters have higher efficiency, and hardware implementation of a solar-based EV charging station
hence, the PV system performance is not affected much. Here, cited at CARET, AMU, Aligarh region could be analyzed and
the simulation result shown in the first graph (i.e., input voltage developed.
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SHARIFF et al.: SYSTEM DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF A SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION 9

Fig. 15. Square PWM waveform of 1 kHz for state B.

Fig. 17. Experimental waveforms representing the load variation response of
a dc–dc converter (buck) in the charging mode.

Fig. 18. Experimental waveforms of the PFC stage.

Fig. 16. Hardware setup and components of the battery charger circuit.

A. Modeling and Simulation of Controller Circuit

The communication and signaling circuit is simulated in
PROTEUS software based on Arduino Nano, we can use any
microcontroller for the PWM, the reason for using Arduino is
that it is very versatile and easy to program.
When we give run command to the software, the circuit Fig. 19. Experimental waveforms representing the load variation response at
the ac–dc converter stage.
simulated based on Arduino coding accordingly as follows.
Table III depicts the sequence of states depending on the
charging condition of Table II, and Fig. 13 shows only blinking
LED state (i.e., charging state). 9.33 V on the display. Fig. 15 shows a 1 kHz PWM square
waveform for state B (+9 V) of the signaling circuit (at 40%
B. Lab Prototype Model duty cycle).
The prototype hardware setup in the lab is described here. The
results obtained from PROTEUS simulation and a consecutive VII. HARDWARE IN THE LOOP AND EXPERIMENTAL
VERIFICATION
hardware implementation show that the proposed controller can
detect all six states as required for proper operation of the Considering the design given in the earlier sections, the
charger. charger circuit used in the EV (see Fig. 8) could be realized
The experimental setup is developed in the EV Hardware- practically as depicted in Fig. 16.
In-the-Loop Lab (see Fig. 14) established at CARET in AMU The sensor feedback input has been executed through the
campus. The model is tested in the lab and the multimeter gives DSP TMS320F2812 board. The voltage and current sensors
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10 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Fig. 20. Graphical representation of various charging parameters, viz. SOC, solar grid, etc.

are LV20-P 500V and LA100-P 100A, respectively. Microsemi VIII. CONCLUSION
MOSFET switch APT100M50J, 500 V, and 100 A rated are
The electrified transportation, i.e., EV and PHEV offers a
triggered through VLA513 at 60 kHz frequency, IGBT-Powerex noise free, clean, and efficient means of transportation system
drivers. An ac voltage regulated supply is supplying the voltage
as compared to the internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV).
input to the electronic dc (output) load. The whole feedback
Also, renewable energy (RE) sources (solar energy) are easily
controller has been executed digitally in the DSP. integrated with the refueling system of these vehicles. Therefore,
The current and voltage output waveforms in this operation
the work presented in this article is an exhaustive study for
mode (charging) of the dc/dc second stage buck converter under
designing, modeling, simulation, and hardware realization of an
dynamically changing load conditions is shown in Fig. 17. Here, EV charging station with solar PV source. Various segments, for
in the charging mode, the second stage manages the dc inductor
instance, recharging infrastructure, approach and methodology
current IDC constant through the current controller, when the adopted, and communication, signaling, and control aspects
load (resistive in this case) changes. applicable to the EV charging process through the EVSE has
The second stage dc/dc bidirectional converter works in the
been discussed in detail. In this article, the PEV is furnished with
buck operating mode to reduce the voltage at the dc bus (VBUS ) a charging circuit of the battery, which must be able to maintain
to the level of the voltage of the battery terminal (VB ). In the power factor near unity (approx. 0.95) through PFC at the
the ac/dc rectifier operation, the PWM converter in the boost
input terminal and a low current ripple through the filter circuit at
mode maintains the PFC (in an active mode). The PWM pulses the output terminal. For this reason, a PWM boost rectifier used
from the DSP board deals with the actuation of various switch- as in cascade connection with a dc/dc buck converter has been
ing appropriately in +ve and −ve half cycles of the voltage
suggested in this article. The circuit operation has been examined
input. Fig. 18 demonstrates the experimental waveforms in a through mathematical modeling for the charging condition in
PWM boost PFC stage. Similarly, the results are shown in
the CCM mode has been done. A DSP controller board for the
the simulation of Fig. 11, the controller keeps up the PFC
proper operation of the circuit with respect to the steady-state
and, therefore, the input voltage and current are in the same operation of the PFC, the transient response of the circuit as well
phase.
as the dynamic EV charging load response based on the SOC, has
Moreover, as calculated by (17), the dc bus voltage fluctuates
also been shown. Moreover, the inference from the simulation
double the fundamental frequency. Here, the power factor is results shows that the performance of the overall system depends
0.93. The PFC corrected it from 0.72. Because of the ac power
on solar radiation and the battery SOC. Compared with the
supply internal impedance, the switching phenomena are repli-
empirical methods of calculation/sizing with assumed data, as
cated in the input side voltage waveform. In addition, hence, a illustrated by the literature survey (see Section I) for an off-grid
little increment in the THD value is caused.
PV system, the direct and applied approach with designed data,
Fig. 19 shows how the ac/dc rectification stage responds to the MATLAB-based Simulink model will provide the simula-
the variation in the load. For this situation, a compensator (feed- tion, sizing, and implementation for a complete PV-EV charging
forward) is additionally executed in the controller algorithm.
system in a comparatively shorter time. Hence, the results are
Because the PFC has average mode multiloop current control, consistent with both the literature part and the present state of
the voltage at the dc bus (VBUS ) is kept steady, yet the variation the proposed solar-based EV charging framework at CARET
in the load must be seen by the variation in the magnitude of the
building parking area.
input side current waveform.
The energy management controller is used for display and
real-time monitoring of the plant, as shown in Fig. 1 via Ethernet CHALLENGES AND FUTURE WORK
cable as explained in Section II. In Fig. 20, different parameters The solar-powered EV charging stations have barriers for
of the SPVCS are shown graphically. deployment at a large scale. For a PV system, the intermittency
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.

SHARIFF et al.: SYSTEM DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF A SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION 11

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S. Khateeb, “A comprehensive review on solar powered electric vehicle [26] F. J. B. Brito, Jr., S. Daher, P. T. Bascop, B. B. Chaves, D. P. Damasceno,
charging system,” Smart Sci., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 54–79, Jan. 2018. and B. R. de Almeida, “Design and control for a single-phase/-stage
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vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 173–187, Apr. 2018.
[5] F. Luo, G. Ranzi, W. Kong, Z. Y. Dong, and F. Wang, “Coordinated Samir M. Shariff (SM’00) received the B.S. and
residential energy resource scheduling with vehicle-to-home and high M.S. degrees in electrical and computer engineering
photovoltaic penetrations,” IET Renewable Power Gener., vol. 12, no. 6, from Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA,
pp. 625–632, 2018. in 1994 and 1996, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree
[6] S. Sahoo, S. Prakash, and S. Mishra, “Handshaking V2G strategy for grid in electrical and computer engineering from Wichita
connected PV assisted charging station,” IET Renewable Power Gener., State University, Wichita, KS, USA, in 2009.
vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1410–1417, 2017. He is currently an Associate Professor with the
[7] F. Ahmad, M. S. Alam, and S. M. Shariff, “A cost-efficient energy Department of Electrical Engineering, College of En-
management system for battery swapping station,” IEEE Syst. J., to be gineering, Taibah University, Medina, Saudi Arabia,
published, doi: 10.1109/JSYST.2018.2890569. where he is also leading the industrial collaborative
[8] J. Cao, C. Crozier, M. Mcculloch, and Z. Fan, “Optimal design and interdisciplinary research in electrical engineering,
operation of a low carbon community based multi-energy systems con- and is also the Head of the Strategic Research Unit. His research interests include
sidering EV integration,” IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy, vol. 10, no. 3, smart microgrids, electric vehicles, renewable energy technologies, and power
pp. 1217–1226, Jul. 2019. electronics.
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.

12 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Mohammad Saad Alam (S’02–M’10–SM’16) re- M. Syed Jamil Asghar (SM’94) received the B.Sc.
ceived the B.Tech. degree in electrical engineering Eng. degree in electrical engineering, the M.Sc. Eng.
from Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, degree in power systems, and the Ph.D. degree in
India, in 2003, the M.S. degree in electrical and power electronics from Aligarh Muslim University
computer engineering from the Illinois Institute of (AMU), Aligarh, India, in 1978, 1982, and 1995,
Technology, Chicago, IL, USA, in 2005, and the respectively.
Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Tennessee He is currently a Professor with the Department
Tech University, Cookeville, TN, USA, in 2009. of Electrical Engineering, AMU. He has established
He is currently an Associate Professor of elec- the Centre of Renewable Energy, Department of Elec-
trical engineering with AMU, and the Coordinator trical Engineering, funded by Government of India.
of the Center of Advanced Research in Electrified He is the Coordinator of DRS program under Special
Transportation, AMU, Aligarh, India. Assistance Program of University Grants Commission, Government of India.
Dr. Alam is a member of the Inter-Ministry Technology Advisory Group He has successfully completed many Government funded research projects. He
with the Department of Heavy Industry to support the FAME mission of the has several patents to his credit related to renewable energy (total 18 patents).
Government of India, at the national level. At the international level, he is a He has authored or coauthored more than 60 papers in refereed journals and
member of the SAE Task Force, where he is involved in developing the interna- conference proceedings including several single-authored papers in the IEEE
tional standards for the interoperability of EVs and PHEVs with the smart grids. transactions (USA). His research interests include power electronics, renewable
He is an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION energy systems, and electrical machines.
ELECTRIFICATION and Springer Journal of Modern Power System and Clean Dr. Asghar is a Fellow of the Institution of Electronics and
Energy. Telecommunication Engineers (India).

Furkan Ahmad (S’17) received the B.Tech. degree

in electrical engineering and the M.Tech. degree in
electrical engineering with specialization in high volt-
age and insulation engineering, in 2012 and 2015, re-
spectively, from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
Saadullah Khan received the B.E. degree in elec-
India, where he is currently working toward the Ph.D.
trical engineering and the M.Tech. degree in electri-
degree in power system and drives.
cal engineering (instrumentation and control) from
Since January 2018, he has been a CSIR-Senior
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, in 2013
Research Fellow. His research interests include smart and 2018, respectively.
microgrids, electric vehicles, energy management,
His research interests include electric vehicles,
power market operations, and renewable energy
charging infrastructure, renewable energy integra-
integration.
tion, etc.
Mr. Ahmad was the recipient of the 2016–2017 CSIR Junior Research
Fellowship Award.

Yasser Rafat received the B.Tech. degree in mechan-

ical engineering from Aligarh Muslim University
(AMU), Aligarh, India, in 2003, the master’s degree
from Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada, in
2007, and the Ph.D. degree from McGill University,
Montreal, QC, Canada, in 2013.
He is currently an Assistant Professor with the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, AMU, and
is the Assistant Training and Placement Officer. He is
the Lab Incharge of the Turbomachinery Lab. He is
among the founding members of an industrial collab-
orative research center in electric mobility at AMU and is the Co-Coordinator of
the Center of Advanced Research in Electrified Transportation. He has authored
or coauthored several publications and delivered talks in the area of thermofluids
and thermoacoustics. His research interests include the fields of sports projectile
aerodynamics, quantification of Schlieren visualization data of turbulent jets,
heat management of Li-ion batteries, building acoustics, and thermoacoustic
refrigerators and engines.