Shaft Alignment:

Introduction
Summary
“Introduction to Shaft Alignment” is the first in a series of
articles designed to provide the novice with the rudimentary
knowledge needed for equipment shaft alignment. This article
explains the basics of alignment such as: types of alignment,
alignment tolerances, alignment process overview, alignment
procedures, pre-alignment, precision alignment, and alignment
methods. With this basic knowledge in hand, the reader will be
better prepared for subsequent articles in the series.

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14 pages
May 2003

SKF Reliability Systems

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 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Table of Contents

Table of Contents.............................................................................................................................2

Introduction......................................................................................................................................4

Misalignment ...................................................................................................................................4
Stationary and Movable Machines ...........................................................................................4
Horizontal Misalignment ..........................................................................................................5
Vertical Misalignment ..............................................................................................................5

Types of Misalignment ....................................................................................................................5

Shaft Offset...............................................................................................................................6
Shaft Angularity........................................................................................................................7

Alignment Tolerances Overview .....................................................................................................7

Alignment Tolerance Chart Example .......................................................................................8
Alignment Process Overview ...................................................................................................8
Alignment Check Procedure.....................................................................................................8
Alignment Correction Procedure..............................................................................................8

Three Stages of Alignment Tasks ....................................................................................................9

1. Pre-Alignment Stage.............................................................................................................9
2. Rough-In Alignment Stage ...................................................................................................9
3. Precision Alignment Stage ...................................................................................................9

Alignment Methods .........................................................................................................................9

Alignment methods overview...................................................................................................9
Mechanical Methods...............................................................................................................10
Dial Indicator Methods ...........................................................................................................10
Rim-Face Method ...................................................................................................................10
Reverse-Rim Method..............................................................................................................11
Laser Systems .........................................................................................................................12

Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................13

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 2

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Further Reading .............................................................................................................................13

Additional Resources .....................................................................................................................14

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................14

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 3

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Introduction Misalignment
Shaft misalignment induces abnormal loads, Shafts are misaligned when their rotational
which causes equipment to run improperly centerlines are not co-linear when the
and eventually leads to a decreased life machines are operating.
expectancy. One must first understand
misalignment in order to perform proper shaft
alignment. All shafts, whether they are
straight or bent, rotate on an axis called the
rotational center. The rotational center forms a
straight line.

Figure 3 Misalignment

Stationary and Movable Machines

When aligning any two machines, one is
designated as stationary and one as movable.
The driven component is usually designated as
the stationary machine, the driver as the
Figure 1 Rotational Center. movable machine. Therefore, misalignment is
expressed by describing the position of the
Two shafts are said to be co-linear when their
movable machine relative to the stationary
respective rotational centers form a single line.
machine.
If this is not the case, the two shafts are said to
be misaligned.

Figure 4 Stationary and Movable Machine

The rotational center of the stationary machine

is a datum or reference line designated zero.
Figure 2 Co-Linearity.
Misalignment is determined by finding the
This article explains in detail the basics of position of the movable rotational center in
shaft alignment such as: types of alignment, relation to the stationary in two planes,
alignment tolerances, alignment process horizontal (X) and vertical (Y).
overview, alignment procedures, pre-
alignment, precision alignment, and alignment
methods.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 4

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Vertical Misalignment
Misalignment conditions viewed from the side
view (elevation) and corrected by making
shim changes, or adjusting "Vibracon"
elements at the front and back of the machine,
are termed vertical misalignment.

Figure 5 The rotational center of the stationary

machine is a datum or reference line. In the system of
coordinates, plus is to the right horizontally and up Figure 8 Vertical misalignment
vertically. The symbols show the clock values 9 o’clock
and 3 o’clock on the X-axis and 12 o’clock on the Y- Types of Misalignment
axis.
Most discussions of shaft alignment begin by
defining two types of misalignment: offset
misalignment and angular misalignment.
These two types of misalignment are typically
illustrated as shown below.

Figure 6 The position of the movable rotational center

in relation to the stationary.

Horizontal Misalignment
Misalignment conditions viewed from the top
view and corrected by sliding the front and
back of the machine from side to side are
Figure 9 Offset misalignment
termed horizontal misalignment.

Figure 7 Horizontal misalignment. Figure 10 Angular misalignment

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 5

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

These illustrations are correct. However, they misalignment pertains to the deviation of one
focus our attention on the couplings. In many shaft centerline from another shaft centerline
plants, “coupling alignment” is performed at a given point (or plane) along the length.
using a straight edge to remove offset and
feeler gauges to remove angular Note the following in the illustration below:
misalignment. Looking at a specific point • The offset is designated for the movable
along the shaft length, many people shaft in reference to the stationary
interchange the terms “offset misalignment” machine centerline.
and “parallel misalignment.” Such use of the
terms assumes that the two shaft centerlines • At Point 1, the movable shaft centerline is
are equidistant at all points along the shaft 35 mils low.
lengths.
• At Point 2, the movable shaft centerline is
In the vast majority of real-world conditions, 7.5 mils low.
such parallelism obviously does NOT exist.
This is because both of these two types of • At Point 3, the movable shaft centerline is
misalignment, offset and angular, exist at the 7 mils high.
same time. • At Point 4, the movable shaft centerline is
Shaft Offset 52.5 mils high.

Offset is the deviation of a position from a

known point of reference. Offsets are
designated by the amount and direction of
deviation. In shaft alignment, offset

Figure 11 Shaft offset. The deviation of one shaft centerline from another shaft centerline at a given point (or
plane) along the length.

Remark: It is important to keep in mind that that is, eliminate offset, at all points along the
our goal during alignment is to make the length.
rotational centerlines of the shafts co-linear,

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 6

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Shaft Angularity visual simplicity. Because two shafts are

seldom parallel, our example shows a movable
Angular misalignment is most easily defined
shaft sloped upward with respect to the
as the slope relationship of two rotational
centers. In most illustrations of offset reference shaft.
misalignment, the reference shaft is thought of
as level or parallel (though it rarely is) for

Figure 12 Shaft angularity. The slope relationship between two rotational centers.

The slope can be quantified by first Alignment Tolerances Overview

determining the offset difference in any two
planes (offset #2 - offset #1) and dividing the "Alignment Tolerances" is a subject of much
difference by the distance between the two debate and one that often brings many
points along the shaft length where the offsets questions to mind.
are measured. • How bad can it be and still be called good?
• How has the vibration been?
• What is the speed of this machine?
• How much time should I spend on this
job?
In the example above, the shaft angularity
(slope) can be calculated as: • What type of bearings does the machine
have?
• How long have the bearings lasted?
• Is this machine critical to operations?
• What type of coupling is being used?

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 7

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Answers to such questions are all important, • Is this an alignment check?

more important on high-speed, critical
machines, but to put it more simply, what we • Is this an alignment correction?
are really asking is: "Exactly how precise You will perform alignment check procedures
should we be?" to determine and document “as-found”
Alignment Tolerance Chart Example conditions. Alignment checks are typically
performed:
While the final decision on alignment
tolerances must be made by individual • When misalignment is suspected, but not
companies based on the nature of the known.
equipment and its criticality to the business,
• To document alignment conditions prior to
the following chart is typical of commonly
removing machines from service.
accepted alignment tolerances.
• To verify that alignment conditions are
within tolerances.
You will perform the alignment correction
procedure:
• Prior to new or rebuilt machines being put
into service.
• When alignment conditions are known to
be outside tolerances.
Figure 13 Tolerance chart table • After an alignment check procedure
indicates misalignment is outside
More important than tables is to point out tolerances.
what the difference is between target
alignment. For example, that a generator Alignment Check Procedure
should be (in a cold situation) 0,5 mm under To complete an alignment check you will:
the diesel engine; the alignment should then
be -0,5±0.05. Where 0.05 is the tolerance, • Set up the alignment fixtures or system.
which is, within our company, nearly always
constant. For parallel misalignments we • Measure misalignment.
always use ±0,05mm and for angular • Document and store alignment conditions.
misalignment we us 0,05 / full coupling
diameter. It is also useful to point out that the • Evaluate machinery alignment conditions.
coupling is not influencing the tolerance.
Some couplings can handle more then 1 mm Alignment Correction Procedure
misalignment, which does not imply that the To complete the entire precision alignment
tolerance could be closer to ±0,5 mm. process you will:

Alignment Process Overview • Perform pre-alignment checks and

corrections.
Different types of alignment procedures are
performed based on the purpose of the task. • Set up the alignment fixtures or system.
The first step in the alignment process is
determining the purpose: • Check and correct soft foot.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 8

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

• Measure misalignment. ballpark.” There are no set rules for how

close the shaft alignment should be before
• Evaluate machinery alignment conditions. attempting a precision alignment or what
• Perform precision alignment corrections. method should be used for performing a
precision alignment. A lot depends on the
• Re-measure and document the machinery machines themselves and the experience of
alignment. the person doing the alignment. It is during
this stage when you want to ensure the shaft
Three Stages of Alignment Tasks centerlines are close enough to permit an
Alignment tasks differ in scope from a efficient precision alignment process. In
periodic alignment check to complete machine general, about .050 inch offset at the coupling
installation. Obviously, when the task is and .010 inch/inch angularity vertically and
simply to gather a complete set of as-found horizontally is considered “rough”.
readings, you will not have to systematically 3. Precision Alignment Stage
go through the elaborate procedure that is
required during the installation of a new or The precision alignment stage is the final
rebuilt machine. For the most part, however, stage. Attaining precision is usually
alignment tasks can be thought of in terms of accomplished using dial indicators or a laser
three stages. Each of these three stages is system. By the end of this stage, we want to
described below. ensure that the machine shafts are aligned well
within specified alignment tolerances. During
1. Pre-Alignment Stage this stage, a very sound and efficient
During this stage of the task, you plan the job mechanism for determining and making
and make preliminary checks that will help alignment corrections is required.
make the latter stages go smoothly. In
general, the pre-alignment stage includes
Alignment Methods
thermal growth checks, alignment method Alignment methods overview
selection, equipment tag-out, checking shaft
There are a wide variety of methods for
and coupling run-out, checking for and
measuring alignment, the most common ones
correcting soft foot, and other preliminary
are: Straight Edge, Rim and Face, Reversed
procedures.
Dial, and Laser.
2. Rough-In Alignment Stage
This is the time when you ensure the
machines’ shaft centerlines are “in-the-

Figure 14 Alignment methods

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 9

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Misalignment at the power planes, where • Relies entirely on the face coupling run
power is transmitted from driver to driven out.
machine, generates vibrations and destructive
forces. Consequently, it is at these points With the straight edge/feeler gauge method,
where alignment should be checked. All the offset is measured using a straight edge and
methods above have in common that readings set of feeler gauges as shown below.
are taken at the shafts or coupling. The
corrections are, however, made at the machine
feet. The positions at the feet must be
calculated to be able to make correct
movements. If this is not done, success will
depend on the aligner’s skill and luck, many
moves will be required and accuracy will be
compromised.
Mechanical Methods
Figure 15 Measure offset misalignment
The mechanical methods include the use of:
Angular misalignment is measured by using
• Straight edges feeler gauges, taper gauges, calipers, etc. The
gap difference between two points 180
• Feeler gauges degrees apart is used to determine the
direction and amount of relative slope
• Calibrated cones between the shafts.
These rough alignment tools are still
commonly used and have their place in the
precision alignment process as a method of
obtaining a rough alignment.
The principles rely on the integrity of the
coupling faces and their run out relative to the
shaft axis. The methods are simple and if, for
example, the couplings are not the same
diameter it is critical to take readings at all Figure 16 Measure angular misalignment
four measurement points.
Dial Indicator Methods
Feeler gauges can still be essentially important The two fundamental dial indicator shaft
when assembling some couplings to maintain alignment methods are the rim-face and
parallelism and should be part of every reverse-rim methods.
alignment kit in helping to eliminate soft-foot.
Rim-Face Method
Advantages of the mechanical methods are:
For many years this was the standard method
• Simplicity. of alignment. The advantages compared to
more modern techniques are relatively few but
• Direct reading. on large face coupling alignment may still be
However, disadvantages are: defined by this method. It can also be used to
check the “run out” of large faces as part of
• Can only be used for thin couplings. the pre-alignment check procedure.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 10
 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

When using a rim-face method, one method will probably have to be used to check
measurement is taken on the rim of the for run-out of flanges and radial run-out of
coupling to determine shaft offset. Another shaft in bearings.
measurement is taken on the face of the
coupling to determine shaft angularity. Many turbine manufacturers specify the
coupling gap or swash in defining alignment
tolerance and this may be the only way to
obtain a reading, in e.g. a marine gent set due
to space restrictions.
One important point to note in comparing
readings obtained with any clock gauge
system and a laser based system is that in
virtually every case a laser system will show
that the shafts are lower than they are thought
to be.
The need for the separate alignment stages and
correction for angular misalignment and
offset, both vertically and horizontally, using
rim measurements can slow the whole
procedure down. During any move you may
well alter the offset or the angle which
Figure 17 Rim-face method involves more re-measuring and re-
positioning. It may be possible to rig up two
The main limitations are: clocks on the same stem but this is not
common practice. The practical limitations to
• The sag of the bar limits distance over being able to measure at the face is one of the
which the techniques can be applied. reasons why the angularity element is often
• The construction of the coupling neglected, due to the accuracy of the coupling.
sometimes prevents access to the face so it If it is offset or skew you can be falsely led
may have to be used in conjunction with into believing you have a perfect line.
other technique such as feeler gauges. Reverse-Rim Method
• Correction is a multi-stage process, Reverse indicator, Reverse peripheral,
eliminating parallelism error first and then Reverse rim, Reverse dial, and Double reverse
concentricity. As there is a vertical and are all terms for the same method of alignment
horizontal component for each component using two clock gauges. When using a reverse
there are actually four steps, all of which rim method, two measurements are taken on
may have to be repeated as required. the rims of the couplings to determine shaft
offset at two points. The two shafts are rotated
• To see the effect of any movement, re- simultaneously, or in some cases, the
measuring is necessary. measurement is done in two stages with
• Axial movement of the shaft directly measurements taken from one clock but
effects the result. switching positions. Shaft angularity is the
slope between the two offset measurement
However, in tight spaces this may be the only points.
way to do the job. The same equipment and

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 11

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

The method has been adopted by amongst reverse alignment is that corrections for both
others the American Petroleum Institute (API) offset and angle can be calculated and applied
as their recommended technique. There is a at the same time, which shortens the time.
growing trend towards standardization in this
technique in a wide variety of industries. Laser Systems
Several laser systems are available for shaft
alignment. Instead of steel bars with dial
indicators, these systems use laser beams and
electronic detectors. One main advantage of
laser beams is that there is no loss in
measurement accuracy due to bar sag. All
laser systems include a laser transmitter, a
detector, and a computer that performs
alignment calculations.
There are two common types of laser systems
in use today, based on different techniques.
• The single laser, with a single target.
• The twin laser, using the reverse indicator
technique.

Single Laser (With single or double

Figure 18 Reversed-rim method
target)
The main advantages are that it gives both This type of system uses auto collimation to
offset and angle at the same time and provides measure offset and angle with a reflecting
for easy calculation and plotting of alignment prism or a five-axis target. The target
and corrections. Increasing the distance measures both vertical and horizontal
between the measuring points (A) can increase components together with the angle
the resolution of the angle. However, with simultaneously. While this method is accurate
clock gauges this may not be practical as the in angular measurement over short distances,
sag of the bar requires compensation. it is less easy to use for rough alignment.
If used over a short distance the method may Unless some mathematical compensation is
not be as accurate as face measurements for available, it can also be susceptible to
angle if the distance A is shorter than the backlash when moving uncoupled machines.
coupling diameter. Re-measuring is required after each move as
the reference is lost.
As with all clock readings, the calculation of
alignment and correction requires manual It cannot distinguish a side to side movement
plotting. Take care in reading inverted by itself or the independent rotation of each
readings plus and negative values. It is easy shaft. To overcome this limitation you may
to exchange the signs or to miss a complete need to couple the shafts in some way to
revolution of the clock. enable the shafts to rotate in unison.
As with the rim and face method, the
movement of the machine is largely a matter
of trial and re-measure. The advantage of
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 12
 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Figure 19 Single laser with a single or double target

Twin laser using the reverse indicator

technique
This type of system shares the major benefits
of the reverse indicator method. Two
measurement systems are used with a laser
and a detector in each unit. The technique is Figure 20 Twin lasers using the reversed indicator
used to display real time alignment and technique.
continually updated corrections as the
machine is moved. Further Reading
The latest generation equipment has a Consult www.aptitudexchange.com for
resolution of 0.001 with filtering to detailed articles, covering topics such as:
compensate for air noise and machine
vibration. • "Couplings"
The flexibility of the system comes in handy, • “Benefits to Shaft Alignment”
especially in rough alignment and coning,
when aligning over long distance cardan • “Horizontal Shaft Alignment – Method of
shafts or cooling tower fan drives. Calculation”
Conclusion • “Pre-Alignment”
As can be observed, there is a great deal more
to shaft alignment the just a straight edge and • “Rough Alignment”
a sharp eye. The objective is to decrease all
possible loads that may interfere with smooth • “Horizontal Shaft Alignment”
operation of the equipment, thus ensuring
extended and trouble free operation. • “Vertical Shaft Alignment”

• “Alignment of Offset Drives”

• “Machine Train Alignment”

• “Straightness”

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 13

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

John Piotrowski, Shaft Alignment Handbook, Internet: http://mapro.skf.com/

Marcel Dekker, (April 1986).
Acknowledgments
Additional Resources
Special thanks is given to Frans Akkermans,
Fixturlaser AB -Fixturlaser AB develops, Machine Support, in the editing and
manufactures and markets laser based contributions to this article.
alignment systems globally in a 70+ countries.
Fixturlaser was founded in 1980 and the first
laser alignment system developed in 1984.
Since then the technology has been accepted
in mostly every industry. Their mission is to
become the leading provider of easy solutions,
including equipment and application
knowledge for measurement and alignment of
machinery in any industry.

Fixturlaser AB
Östergårdsgatan 9
SE-431 21 Mölndal, Sweden

Internet: http://www.fixturlaser.se

Machine Support BV - The comprehensive

capabilities of Machine Support include the
highest proficiency in the installation support
of diesel engines, turbines and the alignment
to generators, pumps, compressors and shaft
lines. Machine Support also specializes in
geometric alignments such as measuring the
line bore of diesel engines and measuring the
straightness of stern tubes onboard marine
vessels.

Machine Support BV
Kaartenmakerstraat 7
NL-2984 CB Ridderkerk, The Netherlands

Internet: http://www.machinesupport.com

SKF Maintenance Products - Delivers

various tools for shaft and belt alignment.

SKF Maintenance Products

Kelvinbaan 16
NL-3439 MT Nieuwegein, The Netherlands

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 14