Relational Algebra

π
CS 186 Fall 2002, Lecture 7
R & G, Chapter 4
By relieving the brain of all unnecessary
work, a good notation sets it free to
concentrate on more advanced problems,
and, in effect, increases the mental power of
the race.
-- Alfred North Whitehead (1861 - 1947)

Relational Query Languages

• Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval of
data from a database.
• Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:
– Strong formal foundation based on logic.
– Allows for much optimization.
• Query Languages != programming languages!
– QLs not expected to be “Turing complete”.
– QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
– QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.

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 Formal Relational Query Languages
Two mathematical Query Languages form the
basis for “real” languages (e.g. SQL), and for
implementation:
Relational Algebra: More operational, very
useful for representing execution plans.

Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what

they want, rather than how to compute it.
(Non-procedural, declarative.)

Understanding Algebra & Calculus is key to

understanding SQL, query processing!

Preliminaries

• A query is applied to relation instances, and the

result of a query is also a relation instance.
– Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed (but
query will run over any legal instance)
– The schema for the result of a given query is also
fixed. It is determined by the definitions of the query
language constructs.
• Positional vs. named-field notation:
– Positional notation easier for formal definitions,
named-field notation more readable.
– Both used in SQL

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 Relational Algebra: 5 Basic Operations
• Selection ( σ ) Selects a subset of rows from
relation (horizontal).
• Projection ( π ) Retains only wanted columns
from relation (vertical).
• Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine two
relations.
• Set-difference (–) Tuples in r1, but not in r2.
• Union (∪ ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.

Since each operation returns a relation, operations can

be composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)

Example Instances R1 sid bid day

22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96

S1 sid sname rating age

bid bname color 22 dustin 7 45.0
101 Interlake blue 31 lubber 8 55.5
102 Interlake red 58 rusty 10 35.0
103 Clipper green
104 Marine red S2 sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
Boats
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

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 Projection
• Examples: π age(S2) ; π sname, rating(S2)
• Retains only attributes that are in the “projection
list”.
• Schema of result:
– exactly the fields in the projection list, with the
same names that they had in the input relation.
• Projection operator has to eliminate duplicates
(How do they arise? Why remove them?)
– Note: real systems typically don’t do duplicate
elimination unless the user explicitly asks for it.
(Why not?)

sname rating
Projection yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10
sid sname rating age π sname,rating (S 2)
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0 age
58 rusty 10 35.0
35.0
S2
55.5

π age(S2)

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 Selection (σ)

• Selects rows that satisfy selection condition.

• Result is a relation.
Schema of result is same as that of the input
relation.
• Do we need to do duplicate elimination?
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0 sname rating
31 lubber 8 55.5
yuppy 9
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 rusty 10
σ rating >8(S2) π sname,rating(σ rating >8(S2))

Union and Set-Difference

• All of these operations take two input relations,

which must be union-compatible:
– Same number of fields.
– `Corresponding’ fields have the same type.

• For which, if any, is duplicate elimination

required?

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 Union
sid sname rating age
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 rusty 10 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 44 guppy 5 35.0
S1 28 yuppy 9 35.0
sid sname rating age S1 ∪ S 2
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2

Set Difference
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 S1− S2
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 44 guppy 5 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 S2 – S1
S2

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 Cross-Product
• S1 x R1: Each row of S1 paired with each row of R1.
• Q: How many rows in the result?
• Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited’ if possible.
– May have a naming conflict: Both S1 and R1 have
a field with the same name.
– In this case, can use the renaming operator:
ρ (C(1→ sid1, 5 → sid 2), S1× R1)

Cross Product Example

sid bid day sid sname rating age
22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
R1 X S1 = 22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96

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 Compound Operator: Intersection

• In addition to the 5 basic operators, there are

several additional “Compound Operators”
– These add no computational power to the
language, but are useful shorthands.
– Can be expressed solely with the basic ops.

• Intersection takes two input relations, which

must be union-compatible.
• Q: How to express it using basic operators?
R ∩ S = R − (R − S)

Intersection
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0 sid sname rating age
31 lubber 8 55.5
S1
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28
31
yuppy
lubber
9
8
35.0
55.5
S1∩ S 2
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2

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 Compound Operator: Join
• Joins are compound operators involving cross
product, selection, and (sometimes) projection.
• Most common type of join is a “natural join” (often
just called “join”). R S conceptually is:
– Compute R X S
– Select rows where attributes that appear in both relations
have equal values
– Project all unique atttributes and one copy of each of the
common ones.
• Note: Usually done much more efficiently than this.
• Useful for putting “normalized” relations back
together.

Natural Join Example

sid bid day sid sname rating age
22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

R1 S1 =

sid sname rating age bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96

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 Other Types of Joins
• Condition Join (or “theta-join”):
R 
c S = σ c ( R × S)

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
S1`U R1
S1.sid < R1.sid
• Result schema same as that of cross-product.
• May have fewer tuples than cross-product.
• Equi-Join: Special case: condition c contains
only conjunction of equalities.

Compound Operator: Division

• Useful for expressing “for all” queries like:

Find sids of sailors who have reserved all boats.
• For A/B attributes of B are subset of attrs of A.
– May need to “project” to make this happen.
• E.g., let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only
field y:
AB = {x ∀ y ∈ B (∃ x, y ∈ A) }
A/B contains all x tuples such that for every y
tuple in B, there is an xy tuple in A.

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 Examples of Division A/B
sno pno pno pno pno
s1 p1 p2 p2 p1
s1 p2 p4 p2
B1
s1 p3 p4
B2
s1 p4
s2 p1 sno B3
s2 p2 s1
s3 p2 s2 sno
s4 p2 s3 s1 sno
s4 p4 s4 s4 s1

A A/B1 A/B2 A/B3

Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators

• Division is not essential op; just a useful shorthand.
– (Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems
implement joins specially.)
• Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are not
`disqualified’ by some y value in B.
– x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we
obtain an xy tuple that is not in A.

Disqualified x values: π x ((π x ( A) × B) − A)

A/B: π x ( A) − Disqualified x values

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 sid bid day
Reserves
Examples 22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
sid sname rating age
Sailors 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

Boats bid bname color

101 Interlake Blue
102 Interlake Red
103 Clipper Green
104 Marine Red

Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103

• Solution 1: π sname((σ Reserves) 

Sailors)
bid =103

• Solution 2: π sname (σ (Re serves 

Sailors))
bid =103

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 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat

• Information about boat color only available in

Boats; so need an extra join:

π sname ((σ Boats) ba Re serves ba Sailors)

color =' red '

A more efficient solution:

π sname (π ((π σ Boats) ba Re s) ba Sailors)
sid bid color =' red '

A query optimizer can find this given the first solution!

Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green boat

• Can identify all red or green boats, then find
sailors who’ve reserved one of these boats:

ρ (Tempboats, (σ Boats))
color =' red ' ∨ color =' green '
π sname(Tempboats 
Re serves 
Sailors)

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 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green boat
• Previous approach won’t work! Must identify
sailors who’ve reserved red boats, sailors who’ve
reserved green boats, then find the intersection
(note that sid is a key for Sailors):

ρ (Tempred, π ((σ Boats) ba Re serves))

sid color =' red '
ρ (Tempgreen, π ((σ Boats) a` Re serves))
sid color =' green'

π sname((Tempred ∩ Tempgreen) 
Sailors)

Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all boats

• Uses division; schemas of the input relations to

/ must be carefully chosen:

ρ (Tempsids, (π Re serves) / (π Boats))

sid, bid bid
π sname (Tempsids ba Sailors)

To find sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ boats:

..... /π (σ Boats)
bid bname =' Interlake'

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