4

Applications of
Derivatives
Overview  One of the most important applications of the derivative is its use as a tool for
finding the optimal (best) solutions to problems. Optimization problems abound in math-
ematics, physical science and engineering, business and economics, and biology and
medicine. For example, what are the height and diameter of the cylinder of largest volume
that can be inscribed in a given sphere? What are the dimensions of the strongest rectangu-
lar wooden beam that can be cut from a cylindrical log of given diameter? Based on pro-
duction costs and sales revenue, how many items should a manufacturer produce to maxi-
mize profit? How much does the trachea (windpipe) contract to expel air at the maximum
speed during a cough? What is the branching angle at which blood vessels minimize the
energy loss due to friction as blood flows through the branches?
In this chapter we use derivatives to find extreme values of functions, to determine
and analyze the shapes of graphs, and to solve equations numerically. We also introduce
the idea of recovering a function from its derivative. The key to many of these applications
is the Mean Value Theorem, which paves the way to integral calculus.

4.1 Extreme Values of Functions

This section shows how to locate and identify extreme (maximum or minimum) values of
a function from its derivative. Once we can do this, we can solve a variety of optimization
problems (see Section 4.6). The domains of the functions we consider are intervals or
unions of separate intervals.

Definitions  Let ƒ be a function with domain D. Then ƒ has an absolute

maximum value on D at a point c if
y
ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) for all x in D
1
y = sin x and an absolute minimum value on D at c if
y = cos x
ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c) for all x in D.
x
−
p 0 p
2 2
Maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of the function ƒ. Absolute
maxima or minima are also referred to as global maxima or minima.
−1
For example, on the closed interval 3 -p>2, p>24 the function ƒ(x) = cos x takes on
an absolute maximum value of 1 (once) and an absolute minimum value of 0 (twice). On
Figure 4.1  Absolute extrema the same interval, the function g(x) = sin x takes on a maximum value of 1 and a mini-
for the sine and cosine functions on mum value of -1 (Figure 4.1).
3-p>2, p>24. These values can depend Functions with the same defining rule or formula can have different extrema (maximum
on the domain of a function. or minimum values), depending on the domain. We see this in the following example.

223
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224 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

Example 1   The absolute extrema of the following functions on their domains can
be seen in Figure 4.2. Each function has the same defining equation, y = x2, but the
domains vary. Notice that a function might not have a maximum or minimum if the
domain is unbounded or fails to contain an endpoint.

Function rule Domain D Absolute extrema on D

(a)  y = x2 (- q, q) No absolute maximum
Absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0
(b)  y = x2 3 0, 24 Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2
Absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0
(c)  y = x2 (0, 24 Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2
No absolute minimum
(d)  y = x2 (0, 2) No absolute extrema

y = x2 y y = x2 y y = x2 y y = x2 y

D = (−∞, ∞) D = [0, 2] D = (0, 2] D = (0, 2)

x x x x
2 2 2 2
(a) abs min only (b) abs max and min (c) abs max only (d) no max or min

Figure 4.2  Graphs for Example 1.

Some of the functions in Example 1 did not have a maximum or a minimum value.
Historical Biography
The following theorem asserts that a function which is continuous over (or on) a finite
Daniel Bernoulli
(1700–1789)
closed interval 3 a, b4 has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum value on the
interval. We look for these extreme values when we graph a function.

theorem 1—The Extreme Value Theorem  If ƒ is continuous on a closed

interval 3 a, b4 , then ƒ attains both an absolute maximum value M and an abso-
lute minimum value m in 3 a, b4 . That is, there are numbers x1 and x2 in 3 a, b4
with ƒ(x1) = m, ƒ(x2) = M, and m … ƒ(x) … M for every other x in 3 a, b4 .

The proof of the Extreme Value Theorem requires a detailed knowledge of the real
number system (see Appendix 7) and we will not give it here. Figure 4.3 illustrates possi-
ble locations for the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval 3 a, b4 .
As we observed for the function y = cos x, it is possible that an absolute minimum (or
absolute maximum) may occur at two or more different points of the interval.
The requirements in Theorem 1 that the interval be closed and finite, and that the
function be continuous, are key ingredients. Without them, the conclusion of the theorem

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 4.1  Extreme Values of Functions 225

(x2, M)

y = f (x)
y = f (x)
M
M
x1 m
x x
a x2 b a b
0m0
Maximum and minimum
at endpoints
(x1, m)
Maximum and minimum
at interior points

y = f (x)

y = f (x)
M M

m
m
x x
a x2 b a x1 b
Maximum at interior point, Minimum at interior point,
minimum at endpoint maximum at endpoint

Figure 4.3  Some possibilities for a continuous function’s maximum and

minimum on a closed interval 3a, b4.

y need not hold. Example 1 shows that an absolute extreme value may not exist if the inter-
No largest value val fails to be both closed and finite. The exponential function y = ex over (- q, q)
1 shows that neither extreme value need exist on an infinite interval. Figure 4.4 shows that
the continuity requirement cannot be omitted.
y=x
0≤ x<1

x Local (Relative) Extreme Values

0 1
Smallest value Figure 4.5 shows a graph with five points where a function has extreme values on its
domain 3 a, b4 . The function’s absolute minimum occurs at a even though at e the func-
Figure 4.4  Even a single point of dis-
tion’s value is smaller than at any other point nearby. The curve rises to the left and falls to
continuity can keep a function from having
the right around c, making ƒ(c) a maximum locally. The function attains its absolute
either a maximum or minimum value on a
maximum at d. We now define what we mean by local extrema.
closed interval. The function
x, 0 … x 6 1
y = e
0, x = 1 Definitions  A function ƒ has a local maximum value at a point c within its
is continuous at every point of 30, 14 domain D if ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) for all x∊D lying in some open interval containing c.
except x = 1, yet its graph over 30, 14
does not have a highest point. A function ƒ has a local minimum value at a point c within its domain D if
ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c) for all x∊D lying in some open interval containing c.

If the domain of ƒ is the closed interval 3 a, b4 , then ƒ has a local maximum at the endpoint
x = a, if ƒ(x) … ƒ(a) for all x in some half-open interval 3 a, a + d), d 7 0. Likewise, ƒ
has a local maximum at an interior point x = c if ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) for all x in some open inter-
val (c - d, c + d), d 7 0, and a local maximum at the endpoint x = b if ƒ(x) … ƒ(b) for
all x in some half-open interval (b - d, b4 , d 7 0. The inequalities are reversed for local
minimum values. In Figure 4.5, the function ƒ has local maxima at c and d and local min-
ima at a, e, and b. Local extrema are also called relative extrema. Some functions can
have infinitely many local extrema, even over a finite interval. One example is the function
ƒ(x) = sin (1>x) on the interval (0, 14 . (We graphed this function in Figure 2.40.)

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226 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

Absolute maximum
No greater value of f anywhere.
Local maximum Also a local maximum.
No greater value of
f nearby.
Local minimum
y = f (x)
No smaller value
of f nearby.
Absolute minimum
No smaller value of Local minimum
f anywhere. Also a No smaller value of
local minimum. f nearby.
x
a c e d b

Figure 4.5  How to identify types of maxima and minima for a function with domain
a … x … b.

An absolute maximum is also a local maximum. Being the largest value overall, it is
also the largest value in its immediate neighborhood. Hence, a list of all local maxima will
automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one. Similarly, a list of all local
minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one.

Finding Extrema
Local maximum value The next theorem explains why we usually need to investigate only a few values to find a
function’s extrema.

y = f (x)
THEOREM 2—The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values  If
ƒ has a local maximum or minimum value at an interior point c of its domain,
and if ƒ′ is defined at c, then
ƒ′(c) = 0.
Secant slopes ≥ 0 Secant slopes ≤ 0
(never negative) (never positive)
Proof   To prove that ƒ′(c) is zero at a local extremum, we show first that ƒ′(c) cannot
be positive and second that ƒ′(c) cannot be negative. The only number that is neither posi-
x tive nor negative is zero, so that is what ƒ′(c) must be.
x c x
To begin, suppose that ƒ has a local maximum value at x = c (Figure 4.6) so that
Figure 4.6  A curve with a local ƒ(x) - ƒ(c) … 0 for all values of x near enough to c. Since c is an interior point of ƒ’s
maximum value. The slope at c, simultane- domain, ƒ′(c) is defined by the two-sided limit
ously the limit of nonpositive numbers and
nonnegative numbers, is zero.
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c)
lim x - c .
xSc

This means that the right-hand and left-hand limits both exist at x = c and equal ƒ′(c).
When we examine these limits separately, we find that
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c)
ƒ′(c) = lim+ x - c … 0.  Because (x - c) 7 0 and ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) (1)
xSc

Similarly,
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c)
ƒ′(c) = lim- x - c Ú 0.  Because (x - c) 6 0 and ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) (2)
xSc

Together, Equations (1) and (2) imply ƒ′(c) = 0.

This proves the theorem for local maximum values. To prove it for local minimum
values, we simply use ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c), which reverses the inequalities in Equations (1)
and (2).

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 4.1  Extreme Values of Functions 227

y Theorem 2 says that a function’s first derivative is always zero at an interior point
y = x3 where the function has a local extreme value and the derivative is defined. If we recall that
1 all the domains we consider are intervals or unions of separate intervals, the only places
where a function ƒ can possibly have an extreme value (local or global) are

x 1. interior points where ƒ′ = 0, At x = c and x = e in Fig. 4.5

−1 0 1
2. interior points where ƒ′ is undefined, At x = d in Fig. 4.5
3. endpoints of the domain of ƒ. At x = a and x = b in Fig. 4.5
−1
The following definition helps us to summarize these results.
(a)

y Definition  An interior point of the domain of a function ƒ where ƒ′ is zero

or undefined is a critical point of ƒ.
1
y = x13
Thus the only domain points where a function can assume extreme values are critical
x
−1 0 1 points and endpoints. However, be careful not to misinterpret what is being said here. A
function may have a critical point at x = c without having a local extreme value there. For
−1
instance, both of the functions y = x3 and y = x1>3 have critical points at the origin, but
neither function has a local extreme value at the origin. Instead, each function has a point
of inflection there (see Figure 4.7). We define and explore inflection points in Section 4.4.
(b)
Most problems that ask for extreme values call for finding the absolute extrema of a
Figure 4.7  Critical points without continuous function on a closed and finite interval. Theorem 1 assures us that such values
extreme values. (a) y′ = 3x2 is 0 at x = 0, exist; Theorem 2 tells us that they are taken on only at critical points and endpoints. Often
but y = x3 has no extremum there. we can simply list these points and calculate the corresponding function values to find
(b) y′ = (1>3)x-2>3 is undefined at x = 0, what the largest and smallest values are, and where they are located. Of course, if the
but y = x1>3 has no extremum there. interval is not closed or not finite (such as a 6 x 6 b or a 6 x 6 q), we have seen that
absolute extrema need not exist. If an absolute maximum or minimum value does exist, it
must occur at a critical point or at an included right- or left-hand endpoint of the interval.

How to Find the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function ƒ on a Finite

Closed Interval
1. Evaluate ƒ at all critical points and endpoints.
2. Take the largest and smallest of these values.

Example 2  Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) = x2 on

3 -2, 14 .

Solution  The function is differentiable over its entire domain, so the only critical point
is where ƒ′(x) = 2x = 0, namely x = 0. We need to check the function’s values at x = 0
and at the endpoints x = -2 and x = 1:
Critical point value: ƒ(0) = 0
Endpoint values: ƒ(-2) = 4
ƒ(1) = 1.
The function has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x = -2 and an absolute minimum
value of 0 at x = 0.

Example 3  Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) =
10x (2 - ln x) on the interval 3 1, e2 4 .

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228 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

y Solution  Figure 4.8 suggests that ƒ has its absolute maximum value near x = 3 and its
30 (e, 10e)
absolute minimum value of 0 at x = e2. Let’s verify this observation.
We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the largest and
25
smallest of the resulting values.
20 The first derivative is
(1, 20)
15
1
10 ƒ′(x) = 10(2 - ln x) - 10xa x b = 10(1 - ln x).
5
(e 2, 0) The only critical point in the domain 3 1, e2 4 is the point x = e, where ln x = 1. The val-
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ues of ƒ at this one critical point and at the endpoints are
Figure 4.8  The extreme values of Critical point value: ƒ(e) = 10e
ƒ(x) = 10x(2 - ln x) on 31, e2 4 occur at Endpoint values: ƒ(1) = 10(2 - ln 1) = 20
x = e and x = e2 (Example 3).
ƒ(e2) = 10e2(2 - 2 ln e) = 0.
We can see from this list that the function’s absolute maximum value is 10e ≈ 27.2; it
occurs at the critical interior point x = e. The absolute minimum value is 0 and occurs at
the right endpoint x = e2.

Example 4  Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) = x2>3 on the
interval 3 -2, 34 .

Solution  We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the larg-
y est and smallest of the resulting values.
y = x 23, −2 ≤ x ≤ 3 The first derivative
2 -1>3 2
Absolute maximum; ƒ′(x) = x = 3
Local
3 3 2x
also a local maximum
maximum 2
has no zeros but is undefined at the interior point x = 0. The values of ƒ at this one critical
1 point and at the endpoints are
Critical point value: ƒ(0) = 0
x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 3
Absolute minimum; Endpoint values: ƒ(-2) = (-2)2>3 = 2 4
3
also a local minimum ƒ(3) = (3)2>3 = 29.
3
Figure 4.9  The extreme values of We can see from this list that the function’s absolute maximum value is 2 9 ≈ 2.08, and
ƒ(x) = x2>3 on 3- 2, 34 occur at x = 0 it occurs at the right endpoint x = 3. The absolute minimum value is 0, and it occurs at
and x = 3 (Example 4). the interior point x = 0 where the graph has a cusp (Figure 4.9).

Exercises  4.1
Finding Extrema from Graphs 3. y 4. y

In Exercises 1–6, determine from the graph whether the function has
y = f (x)
any absolute extreme values on 3a, b4 . Then explain how your y = h(x)
answer is consistent with .Theorem 1
1. y 2. y

y = h(x) y = f (x)
x x
0 a c b 0 a c b

x x
0 a c1 c2 b 0 a c b

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 4.1  Extreme Values of Functions 229

5. y 6. y In Exercises 15–20, sketch the graph of each function and determine

y = g(x) whether the function has any absolute extreme values on its domain.
y = g(x) Explain how your answer is consistent with Theorem 1.
15. ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 , - 1 6 x 6 2
6
16. y = , -1 6 x 6 1
x2 + 2
x x - x, 0 … x 6 1
0 a c b 0 a c b 17. g(x) = e
x - 1, 1 … x … 2
In Exercises 7–10, find the absolute extreme values and where they 1
occur. x, -1 … x 6 0
18. h(x) = •
7. y 8. y 2x, 0 … x … 4
2 19. y = 3 sin x, 0 6 x 6 2p
1
x + 1, -1 … x 6 0
x 20. ƒ(x) = •
−1 1 x p
0
cos x, 0 6 x …
−1 −2 2 2

9. y 10. y Absolute Extrema on Finite Closed Intervals

(1, 2)
In Exercises 21–40, find the absolute maximum and minimum values
5 2 of each function on the given interval. Then graph the function. Iden-
tify the points on the graph where the absolute extrema occur, and
x include their coordinates.
−3 2
2
−1 21. ƒ(x) = x - 5, -2 … x … 3
3
x 22. ƒ(x) = -x - 4, - 4 … x … 1
0 2
23. ƒ(x) = x2 - 1, -1 … x … 2
24. ƒ(x) = 4 - x3, -2 … x … 1
In Exercises 11–14, match the table with a graph. 1
25. F(x) = - , 0.5 … x … 2
11. x 12. x x2
ƒ′(x) ƒ′(x)
1
a 0 a   0 26. F(x) = - x , - 2 … x … -1
b 0 b   0 3
27. h(x) = 2x, - 1 … x … 8
c 5 c -5
28. h(x) = - 3x2>3, - 1 … x … 1
29. g(x) = 24 - x2 , -2 … x … 1
13. x ƒ′(x) 14. x ƒ′(x)

30. g(x) = - 25 - x2 , - 25 … x … 0
a does not exist a does not exist p 5p
31. ƒ(u) = sin u, - … u …
b   0 b does not exist 2 6
c -2 c -1.7 p p
32. ƒ(u) = tan u, - … u …
3 4
p 2p
33. g(x) = csc x, … x …
3 3
p p
34. g(x) = sec x, - … x …
3 6
35. ƒ(t) = 2 - 0 t 0 , -1 … t … 3
a b c a b c
36. ƒ(t) = 0 t - 5 0 , 4 … t … 7
(a) (b) 37. g(x) = xe-x, -1 … x … 1
38. h(x) = ln (x + 1), 0 … x … 3
1
39. ƒ(x) = x + ln x, 0.5 … x … 4
2
40. g(x) = e-x , -2 … x … 1
a b c a b c

(c) (d)

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230 Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

In Exercises 41–44, find the function’s absolute maximum and mini- Theory and Examples
mum values and say where they are assumed. 79. A minimum with no derivative  The function ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 has
41. ƒ(x) = x4>3, - 1 … x … 8 an absolute minimum value at x = 0 even though ƒ is not differ-
entiable at x = 0. Is this consistent with Theorem 2? Give rea-
42. ƒ(x) = x5>3, - 1 … x … 8
sons for your answer.
43. g(u) = u 3>5, - 32 … u … 1
80. Even functions  If an even function ƒ(x) has a local maximum
44. h(u) = 3u 2>3, -27 … u … 8 value at x = c, can anything be said about the value of ƒ at
x = -c? Give reasons for your answer.
Finding Critical Points
In Exercises 45–52, determine all critical points for each function. 81. Odd functions  If an odd function g(x) has a local minimum
2 2 3 value at x = c, can anything be said about the value of g at
45. y = x - 6x + 7 46. ƒ(x) = 6x - x
x = -c? Give reasons for your answer.
3
47. ƒ(x) = x(4 - x) 48. g(x) = (x - 1)2(x - 3)2
82. No critical points or endpoints exist  We know how to find the
2 x2 extreme values of a continuous function ƒ(x) by investigating its
49. y = x2 + x 50. ƒ(x) =
x - 2 values at critical points and endpoints. But what if there are no criti-
51. y = x2 - 32 2x 52. g(x) = 22x - x2 cal points or endpoints? What happens then? Do such functions
really exist? Give reasons for your answers.
Finding Extreme Values
In Exercises 53–68, find the extreme values (absolute and local) of the 83. The function
function over its natural domain, and where they occur. V(x) = x(10 - 2x)(16 - 2x), 0 6 x 6 5,
53. y = 2x2 - 8x + 9 54. y = x3 - 2x + 4
models the volume of a box.
55. y = x3 + x2 - 8x + 5 56. y = x3(x - 5)2
a. Find the extreme values of V.
57. y = 2x2 - 1 58. y = x - 4 2x
b. Interpret any values found in part (a) in terms of the volume
1 of the box.
59. y = 3
60. y = 23 + 2x - x2
21 - x2
84. Cubic functions  Consider the cubic function
x x + 1
61. y = 2 62. y = 2 ƒ(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
x + 1 x + 2x + 2
63. y = ex + e-x 64. y = ex - e-x a. Show that ƒ can have 0, 1, or 2 critical points. Give examples
65. y = x ln x 66. y = x2 ln x and graphs to support your argument.
67. y = cos-1 (x2) 68. y = sin-1(ex) b. How many local extreme values can ƒ have?
85. Maximum height of a vertically moving body  The height of a
Local Extrema and Critical Points
body moving vertically is given by
In Exercises 69–76, find the critical points, domain endpoints, and
extreme values (absolute and local) for each function. 1
s = - gt 2 + y0 t + s0, g 7 0,
69. y = x2>3(x + 2) 70. y = x2>3(x2 - 4) 2
71. y = x 24 - x2 72. y = x2 23 - x with s in meters and t in seconds. Find the body’s maximum height.
4 - 2x, x … 1 3 - x, x 6 0 86. Peak alternating current  Suppose that at any given time t (in
73. y = e 74. y = e
x + 1, x 7 1 3 + 2x - x2, x Ú 0 seconds) the current i (in amperes) in an alternating current cir-
cuit is i = 2 cos t + 2 sin t. What is the peak current for this cir-
-x2 - 2x + 4, x … 1
75. y = e cuit (largest magnitude)?
-x2 + 6x - 4, x 7 1
Graph the functions in Exercises 87–90. Then find the extreme values
1 1 15
T
- x2 - x + , x … 1 of the function on the interval and say where they occur.
76. y = c 4 2 4
87. ƒ(x) = 0 x - 2 0 + 0 x + 3 0 , -5 … x … 5
x3 - 6x2 + 8x, x 7 1
88. g(x) = 0 x - 1 0 - 0 x - 5 0 , -2 … x … 7
In Exercises 77 and 78, give reasons for your answers. 89. h(x) = 0 x + 2 0 - 0 x - 3 0 , - q 6 x 6 q
77. Let ƒ(x) = (x - 2)2>3. 90. k(x) = 0 x + 1 0 + 0 x - 3 0 , - q 6 x 6 q
a. Does ƒ′(2) exist?
Computer Explorations
b. Show that the only local extreme value of ƒ occurs at x = 2. In Exercises 91–98, you will use a CAS to help find the absolute
 c. Does the result in part (b) contradict the Extreme Value extrema of the given function over the specified closed interval. Per-
Theorem? form the following steps.
d. Repeat parts (a) and (b) for ƒ(x) = (x - a)2>3, replacing 2 a. Plot the function over the interval to see its general behavior there.
by a. b. Find the interior points where ƒ′ = 0. (In some exercises, you
78. Let ƒ(x) = 0 x3 - 9x 0 . may have to use the numerical equation solver to approximate a
a. Does ƒ′(0) exist? b.
Does ƒ′(3) exist? solution.) You may want to plot ƒ′ as well.
c. Does ƒ′(-3) exist? d.
Determine all extrema of ƒ. c. Find the interior points where ƒ′ does not exist.

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 4.2  The Mean Value Theorem 231

d. Evaluate the function at all points found in parts (b) and (c) and at 94. ƒ(x) = 2 + 2x - 3x2>3, 3-1, 10>34
the endpoints of the interval.
95. ƒ(x) = 2x + cos x, 30, 2p4
e. Find the function’s absolute extreme values on the interval and 1
3>4
identify where they occur. 96. ƒ(x) = x - sin x + , 30, 2p4
2
91. ƒ(x) = x4 - 8x2 + 4x + 2, 3- 20>25, 64>254 97. ƒ(x) = px2e - 3x>2, 30, 54
4 3
92. ƒ(x) = - x + 4x - 4x + 1, 3- 3>4, 34 98. ƒ(x) = ln (2x + x sin x), 31, 154
93. ƒ(x) = x2>3(3 - x), 3-2, 24

4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

We know that constant functions have zero derivatives, but could there be a more compli-
cated function whose derivative is always zero? If two functions have identical derivatives
over an interval, how are the functions related? We answer these and other questions in
y this chapter by applying the Mean Value Theorem. First we introduce a special case,
known as Rolle’s Theorem, which is used to prove the Mean Value Theorem.
f ′(c) = 0
Rolle’s Theorem
y = f (x)
As suggested by its graph, if a differentiable function crosses a horizontal line at two dif-
ferent points, there is at least one point between them where the tangent to the graph is
x horizontal and the derivative is zero (Figure 4.10). We now state and prove this result.
0 a c b
(a)
THEOREM 3—Rolle’s Theorem  Suppose that y = ƒ(x) is continuous over
y the closed interval 3 a, b4 and differentiable at every point of its interior (a, b).
f ′(c3 ) = 0 If ƒ(a) = ƒ(b), then there is at least one number c in (a, b) at which ƒ′(c) = 0.
f ′(c1 ) = 0
f ′(c2 ) = 0 y = f (x)
Proof   Being continuous, ƒ assumes absolute maximum and minimum values on
3 a, b4 by Theorem 1. These can occur only
x
0 a c1 c2 c3 b 1. at interior points where ƒ′ is zero,
(b) 2. at interior points where ƒ′ does not exist,
3. at endpoints of the function’s domain, in this case a and b.
Figure 4.10  Rolle’s Theorem says
that a differentiable curve has at least one By hypothesis, ƒ has a derivative at every interior point. That rules out possibility (2),
horizontal tangent between any two points leaving us with interior points where ƒ′ = 0 and with the two endpoints a and b.
where it crosses a horizontal line. It may If either the maximum or the minimum occurs at a point c between a and b, then
have just one (a), or it may have more (b). ƒ′(c) = 0 by Theorem 2 in Section 4.1, and we have found a point for Rolle’s Theorem.
If both the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum occur at the endpoints, then
because ƒ(a) = ƒ(b) it must be the case that ƒ is a constant function with ƒ(x) = ƒ(a) = ƒ(b)
for every x∊ 3 a, b4 . Therefore ƒ′(x) = 0 and the point c can be taken anywhere in the
interior (a, b).

The hypotheses of Theorem 3 are essential. If they fail at even one point, the graph
may not have a horizontal tangent (Figure 4.11).
Historical Biography Rolle’s Theorem may be combined with the Intermediate Value Theorem to show
Michel Rolle when there is only one real solution of an equation ƒ(x) = 0, as we illustrate in the next
(1652–1719) example.

Example 1   Show that the equation

x3 + 3x + 1 = 0
has exactly one real solution.

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