The Second Department of Surgery, University of Helsinki, Finland

and
Police Technical Centre, Helsinki, Finland

Wound ballistic simulation:

Assessment of the legitimacy of law enforcement firearms
ammunition by means of wound ballistic simulation

Jorma Jussila

Academic dissertation
To be presented, by the permission of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of
Helsinki, for public examination in Auditorium 2 of the Meilahti Hospital,
on January 21st , 2005, at 12 o’clock.

Helsinki 2005
This study was carried out at the Second Department of Surgery (Professor Eero Kivilaakso,
MD), University of Helsinki, Finland and at Police Technical Centre, Helsinki, Finland

The work was supervised by

Docent Ari Leppäniemi, MD.

The manuscript was reviewed by

Docent Harri Pihlajamäki, MD of Institute of Military Medicine, Helsinki, Finland

and

Docent Ulf P. Arborelius, MD of Swedish Defence Research Agency – FOI, Stockholm,

Sweden

ISBN 952-91-8000-4 (paperback)

ISBN 952-10-2209-4 (PDF)
Helsinki 2004
Yliopistopaino

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

“ Just as a horse must have endurance and no
defects, so it is with weapons. Horses should
walk strongly, and swords and companion
swords should cut strongly. Spears and halberds
must stand up to heavy use: bows and guns must
be sturdy. Weapons should be hardy rather than
decorative.”

Miyamoto Musashi (1584 – 1645)

ABSTRACT
Use of force to protect and defend a nation from external aggression, internal disorder and
unlawful activity is considered necessary and morally acceptable. Even though ultimate, lethal
force is sometimes unavoidable the force should always be in proportion with the prevailing
threat. No more force should be used than is necessary to avert it and stop the aggression. The
means of force allowed for a legitimate military or law enforcement organisation are by no
means unlimited. International organisations have long attempted to define what can be
considered acceptable technology and behaviour in a conflict. A firearm is a common means
of force. Yet the available definitions of its acceptable effects and means to verify them have
been somewhat lacking.

This dissertation looks into the International Law to find an interpretation of current weapons
technology and a legal basis for verification of the injury potential of penetrating firearms
projectiles. The result emphasizes the fact that all parties of a dangerous confrontation have
the same right to be protected from superfluous and unwarranted injury - not only the
offender, but also and primarily the non-involved bystander and the law enforcement official.

The literature is reviewed for wound ballistic research, proposals for injury scoring and
wound ballistic simulation methods. Ballistic gelatine has long been used as soft tissue
simulant to study the behaviour of a bullet and its injurious effects. The validation of gelatine
has so far been somewhat dubious. Several different methods of preparing it have been
published with very little information on how various preparation parameters affect the end
result. Laboratory experiments conducted during this research correct some of these problems
and establish a more solid basis for wound ballistic simulation by recommending the use of
standard gelatine and validating it with the results obtained from published tests with
anesthetized pigs and defining a function describing the relationship between dissipated
kinetic energy and amount of devitalised tissue. Various methods of measuring the kinetic
energy dissipated by the bullet into gelatine are compared and the method giving the highest
correlation recommended.

Skin simulant is defined to complement the gelatine in studying the residual injury potential
to bystanders induced by bullets that already penetrated the primary target or ricocheted from
a hard surface.

Based on above, a method for verifying the injury potential of a bullet is proposed. This
method will allow for a meaningful comparison of bullet effects to establish their suitability
and acceptability for law enforcement use. Furthermore, it allows the results to be connected
to the Red Cross Wound Classification. The research also shows that standardized injury and
ballistic data should be collected and stored in a database. An outline of standard information
is proposed. This would allow verification of experimental research, further refinement of
wound ballistic simulation and follow-up control of the weapons already accepted for use.

Although there is no legal obligation for mandatory review for assessment of the injury
potential of the firearms used by law enforcement in Finland, the fact that the society has
authorized the use of force against its own members makes the moral obligation compelling.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

CONTENTS

1 LIST OF ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS ......................................................................10

2 ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS ....................................................................12

3 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................16

4 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..............................................................................18

4.1 Firearms and ballistics ..................................................................................................................................... 18
4.1.1 The firearm .........................................................................................................................................18
4.1.2 Internal ballistics.................................................................................................................................21
4.1.3 Intermediate ballistics.........................................................................................................................22
4.1.4 External ballistics ...............................................................................................................................22
4.1.5 Terminal ballistics ..............................................................................................................................26
4.2 The International Law ..................................................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Penetrating projectile induced injury............................................................................................................. 29
4.3.1 Soft tissue injury.................................................................................................................................29
4.3.2 Fragmentation.....................................................................................................................................31
4.3.3 Skin injury ..........................................................................................................................................33
4.3.4 Bone injury .........................................................................................................................................35
4.3.5 Skull and vertebral injury ...................................................................................................................37
4.3.6 Remote and delayed effects ................................................................................................................37
4.3.7 Injury assessment................................................................................................................................38
4.4 Simulating bullet interaction using live and natural tissues ......................................................................... 41
4.4.1 Live, anaesthetised animals ................................................................................................................42
4.4.2 Humans...............................................................................................................................................42
4.4.3 Natural vital organs ............................................................................................................................42
4.5 Synthetic simulants........................................................................................................................................... 42
4.5.1 Soft tissue simulants ...........................................................................................................................42
4.5.2 Skin simulant ......................................................................................................................................45
4.5.3 Bone simulant .....................................................................................................................................45
4.5.4 Synthetic skulls...................................................................................................................................46

5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................48

6 MATERIALS AND METHODS..................................................................................50

6.1 Paper I - International law and law enforcement firearms .......................................................................... 50
6.2 Paper II – Preparing Ballistic Gelatine – Review and Proposal for a Standard method ........................... 51
6.3 Paper III - Ballistic variables and tissue devitalisation in penetrating injury – Establishing
Relationship Through Meta-analysis of a Number of Pig Tests ................................................................... 51
6.4 Paper IV - Ballistic Skin Simulant .................................................................................................................. 53
6.5 Paper V - Measurement of Kinetic Energy Dissipation with Gelatine Fissure Formation with
Special Reference to Gelatine Validation ....................................................................................................... 56
6.6 Statistical methods............................................................................................................................................ 57
6.6.1 Paper II ...............................................................................................................................................57
6.6.2 Paper III ..............................................................................................................................................58
6.6.3 Paper IV..............................................................................................................................................58
6.6.4 Paper V ...............................................................................................................................................59

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

7 RESULTS ................................................................................................................. 60
7.1 Paper I – International law and law enforcement firearms ......................................................................... 60
7.2 Paper II – Preparing Ballistic Gelatine – Review and Proposal for a Standard method........................... 61
7.3 Paper III - Ballistic variables and tissue devitalisation in penetrating injury – Establishing
Relationship Through Meta-analysis of a Number of Pig Tests................................................................... 63
7.4 Paper IV - Ballistic Skin Simulant.................................................................................................................. 66
7.5 Paper V - Measurement of Kinetic Energy Dissipation with Gelatine Fissure Formation with
Special Reference to Gelatine Validation ....................................................................................................... 69

8 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................ 72
8.1 Firearms and ballistics..................................................................................................................................... 72
8.2 The International Law..................................................................................................................................... 73
8.3 Penetrating projectile induced injury............................................................................................................. 74
8.4 Simulating bullet interaction using live and natural tissues......................................................................... 78
8.5 Synthetic simulants .......................................................................................................................................... 78
8.6 Considerations on the design of a simulation scenario ................................................................................. 80

9 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................... 82

10 RECOMMENDATION FOR A STANDARD ASSESSMENT METHOD.................... 84

10.1 Materials ........................................................................................................................................................... 85
10.2 Basic reference test........................................................................................................................................... 85
10.3 Ricochet test...................................................................................................................................................... 88
10.4 Entry and exit wound test................................................................................................................................ 89
10.5 Mathematical model for injury potential assessment ................................................................................... 90

11 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 92

12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ 94

13 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 96

14 ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS................................................................................... 114

List of tables:
Table 1: SI-symbols and special names for ballistics...............................................................12
Table 2: The Red Cross Wound Classification [Coupland, 1993] ...........................................41
Table 3: Specific gravity of human tissues [DeMuth 1966].....................................................44
Table 4: A summary of the pig test primary data used for analysis. ........................................52
Table 5: Reviewed studies on penetration threshold velocity of human skin. .........................54
Table 6: Skin simulant candidates ............................................................................................55
Table 7: Commensurate amounts of devitalised (debrided) tissue and their correlations with
kinetic energy dissipations. ..............................................................................................63
Table 8: Correlations of devitalised tissue (mdeb) with various ballistic variables. ................65
Table 9: Skin simulant candidates and test results ...................................................................67
Table 10: Simulation possibilities of RCWC ...........................................................................76
List of figures:

Figure 1: The ballistic cycle of firing a cartridge. From the top: A cartridge, loaded in the
cartridge chamber, firing pin strikes the primer which ignites the powder, hot powder
gases push the bullet down the barrel, bullet exits the barrel with pressurised gas,
unburned powder and a typical yaw of some degrees. .................................................... 18
Figure 2 Bullets have been designed for both handguns, rifles and shotguns in all imaginable
solid lead, jacketed, hollow point, armour piercing, tracer, prefragmented and incendiary
configurations................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 3: Multibullet, rifle flechette, shotgun flechette and shotshell cartridges .................... 20
Figure 4: An example of the relationship between chamber pressure, barrel length and bullet
velocity of a 5.56x45 mm cartridge calculated using Broemel QuickLoad software...... 21
Figure 5: The bullet behaves in different ways depending on the degree of stability. A –
unstable, B – overstable, C –neutral. ............................................................................... 24
Figure 6: A 3.6 g 5.56 mm bullet shot with a Colt M4 Commando at 10 m into a 0.5 mm steel
plate. The rifle had a 290 mm barrel and 7 inch rifling twist. Very little bullet yaw could
be measured...................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 7: Constructions of controllably deforming bullets. From top: conventional hollow
point, hollow point with jacket chemically or mechanically bonded to core to prevent
separation, expansion valve with a wedge or ball forcing the bullet to expand on impact.
The valve construction is used especially with solid copper alloy monobloc bullets...... 27
Figure 8: Fragmentation nomenclature (fragprocess.cdr ja fragproc.jpg). A – bullet before
impact, B – deformation after impact with varying degree of fragmentation. C – bullet
main continues penetration and starts tumbling. D – Bullet main exits with core and
jacket possibly separating. Core-jacket separation could also take place inside the
simulant............................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 9: An example of bullet fragment dispersion at different depths in gelatine ............... 32
Figure 10: An example of the wound channel of an expanding 5.56 mm bullet in 10% gelatine
as seen from the direction of the gun. A fragment has penetrated transversally about 50
mm from the bullet path................................................................................................... 33
Figure 11 : An example of a 9x19 mm jacketed pistol bullet penetration of gelatine imbedded
synthetic bone .................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 12 Synthetic generic bone tube imbedded in 10% gelatine and penetrated by a 9 mm
FMJ bullet. The silicone “periosteum” has been removed to more clearly show the
fracture. Note the lack of longitudinal fractures in the bone tube.................................... 36
Figure 13 : Police technical centre artificial flexible atlas vertebra for mounting a skull for
helmet testing. .................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 14: Schematic of the testing setup. A – weapon, B – chronograph screens, C – gelatine.
.......................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 15 Testing arrangement. A – weapon, B – impact velocity measurement, C – gelatine,
D – residual velocity measurement and E – backstop of cellulose wadding ................... 57
Figure 16: Graphic representation of the gelatine penetration function .................................. 62
Figure 17: Equation 24 presented in graphic form .................................................................. 64

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Figure 18: Distribution of the amount of excised tissue by the kinetic energy dissipation
normalised with the duration of the event ........................................................................64
Figure 19: Comparison of various proposed equations for threshold velocity with the
observations in table 4. .....................................................................................................66
Figure 20: Regression functions for human skin simulant threshold velocity .........................68
Figure 21: Deceleration comparison of the 9x19 mm Norma bullet........................................69
Figure 22: Deceleration comparison of the 7.62x39 mm FMJ bullet.......................................70
Figure 23: Conceptual view of the proposed IFISS-system .....................................................77
Figure 24: Schematic of the basic reference test arrangement .................................................85
Figure 25: Schematic of primary block C1. A- impact direction, B – the shroud....................86
Figure 26: Schematic of secondary block C2. A – impact direction, B – skin simulant, C2 –
gelatine block and D – plastic film to hold the skin simulant in place.............................86
Figure 27: Photograph of the basic test setup at Police Technical Centre, Helsinki................87
Figure 28: Schematic of the ricochet test arrangement. D – direction of shot, An – angle of
attack, T – ricochet surface, Ad – angle of deflection......................................................88
Figure 29: Photograph of the ricochet test setup. .....................................................................88
Figure 30: Schematic of entry and exit wound test arrangement. A – impact direction, B1 and
B2 – skin simulants, C2 – 12.5 cm gelatine block, D – Plastic film for holding the skin, E
– the shroud. .....................................................................................................................89

The drawings have been done by the author using CorelDraw 8 vector graphics. Photographs
have been taken by the author using Nikon Coolpix 900 digital camera and prepared using
Corel Photo-Paint 8 software.
10 List of original publications

1 LIST OF ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS

I
Jorma Jussila, MSc and Pertti Normia, legal counsellor,
INTERNATIONAL LAW AND LAW ENFORCEMENT FIREARMS, Medicine Conflict
and Survival, Vol. 20, 55-69 (2004)

II
Jorma Jussila, MSc
PREPARING BALLISTIC GELATINE – REVIEW AND PROPOSAL FOR A STANDARD
METHOD, Forensic Science International 2004 May 10;141(2-3):91-8

III
Jorma Jussila, MSc, B.Thomas Kjellström, MD, PhD and Ari Leppäniemi, MD
BALLISTIC VARIABLES AND TISSUE DEVITALISATION IN PENETRATING
INJURY – ESTABLISHING RELATIONSHIP THROUGH META-ANALYSIS OF A
NUMBER OF PIG TESTS, submitted to Injury 7/2004 and approved for publication 9/2004.

IV
Jorma Jussila MSc, Ari Leppäniemi MD, Mikael Paronen PhD and Erkki Kulomäki, senior
researcher
BALLISTIC SKIN SIMULANT. Submitted to Forensic Science International 3/2004.
Approved for publication 6/2004.

V
Jorma Jussila, MSc
MEASUREMENT OF KINETIC ENERGY DISSIPATION WITH GELATINE FISSURE
FORMATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GELATINE VALIDATION. Submitted
to Forensic Science International 4/2004. Approved for publication 6/2004.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

List of original publications 11
12 Abbreviations and definitions

2 ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

The literature often uses miscellaneous symbols including special fonts, Greek alphabet and
subscripts for various purposes. The notation below is intended for clarifying the issue. It uses
the International System of Units as a guideline with some exceptions. For clarity and ease of
writing subscripts are reserved for indexes and superscripts for powers only. As the notation
evolved together with this dissertation some of the original papers may use it only partially.

Notation: SI-symbol concatenated with a qualifier both in italics as follows:

Table 1: SI-symbols and special names for ballistics

ά angle N number (of observations etc.)

a acceleration o
A surface area p pressure
C coefficient q
d diameter r radius
∆ difference R rate
e base of natural logarithm S sectional density = m/A
(2.718..)
E kinetic energy SD standard deviation
f t time
F factor
g gravity u
h v velocity
i,j,k V volume
K calibre x
l length, distance y
m mass z
n T temperature

Reserved words for qualifiers:

an (άan) Angle of attack from surface normal

b ballistic
be ballistic event
cr crusher
d dissipation (Ed)

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Abbreviations and definitions 13

deb debrided
def deformation
dev deviation
form form (of the projectile)
fr fragmentation
i impact
pz piezo
r residual, retained
rt rifling twist
sp specific (msp- specific weight)
st stability
th threshold
w wound
x exit

Naming:

Name Unit Definition

άdevi degree Angle of deflection (deviation) from the flight path
άan degree Angle of attack from the surface normal of the target
CbM ballistic coefficient - Metro
CbI ballistic coefficient – ICAO
Cd drag coefficient
dwi mm maximum diameter of permanent entry wound (j = 0)
dpcj mm maximum diameter of permanent cavity at measurement depth (j)
e.g. dpc50
dtcmax mm maximum diameter of temporary cavity
dtcj mm diameter of temporary cavity at measurement depth (j) e.g. dtc50
dwx mm maximum diameter of permanent exit wound
Ei J Kinetic energy of the projectile on impact
Er J Residual kinetic energy of the projectile main after penetration
Ed J Amount of kinetic energy dissipated into target
Edef J Amount of kinetic energy used by projectile deformation
Efr J Amount of kinetic energy dissipated into target by bullet fragments
Ki mm Initial projectile calibre (diameter)
Kr mm Largest diameter of the projectile main after penetration (Residual
calibre)
li m Distance between the muzzle of the weapon and the first obstacle
(Impact distance)
lrt mm rate of twist of barrel rifling (length of one complete turn)
lw mm Length of wound channel of projectile main
14 Abbreviations and definitions

lwr mm Length of residual wound channel i.e. the depth of penetration of the
farthest penetrating fragment of the projectile
mi g Projectile weight
mr g Retained weight of the projectile or its recovered fragments
excluding those left in the simulant
mdeb g mass of debrided (devitalised) tissue
msp g/cm3 specific weight
pcr Pa chamber or port pressure measured with crusher method
ppz Pa chamber or port pressure measured with piezo method
Rfr - rate of fragmentation Rfr =( mi – mr)/mi
S g/cm2 sectional density of a bullet = projectile weight (mi or mr )divided by
its cross-sectional area.
tbe ms duration of terminal ballistic event (e.g. penetration)
vn m/s Velocity as measured at (n) metres from the muzzle of the weapon
eg. v2.5
vi m/s Impact velocity
vr m/s Residual velocity of the projectile main after penetration
vth m/s Threshold velocity

NOTE. The European calibre notation uses projectile diameter times length of casing in
millimetres e.g. 9x19 mm [C.I.P. 1990] and occasionally the name of the inventor e.g. 7.62
mm Tokarev or 9 mm Luger. The latter is the same calibre as 9x19 mm. The American
notation uses projectile diameter in decimal fractions of an inch. Likewise the respective units
of bullet mass are in grammes (g) and grains (gr).

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Abbreviations and definitions 15
16 Introduction

3 INTRODUCTION

Firearms injuries caused in military conflicts, law enforcement and civilian environment are
numerous and of great social and humanitarian concern. Weapons designers produce new
types of of ammunition. Yet firearms are needed for protection of the society and enforcement
of law, order and peace. All this makes it ever more important to gain profound understanding
on the wound ballistic processes in order to minimise injuries and suffering and to maximise
the prospects of recovery.

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court [1999] defines the International Law as
consisting of:
a) international conventions also called covenants, protocols and charters.
b) international custom as evidence of a general practice accepted as law.
c) the general principles of law recognized by civilised nations.
d) authoritative interpretations of above.

Item a, also called the “Law of Treaties” is legally binding [de Rover 1998]. Most of its
statutes relevant to weaponry deal with armed international or domestic military conflicts [UN
1977 and 1980] and do not apply to law enforcement. The statutes covering law enforcement
[UN 1990] have only the status of authoritative recommendation [de Rover 1998]. It can,
however, be said that the 1907 Geneva Convention requirement to abstain from the use of
weapons causing superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering (maux superflus) is an
accepted international custom and generally binding. Unfortunately it is not clear what maux
superflus means in weapons technical terms. Evaluation process is required [UN 1977] to
ascertain that any new military weapon is in compliance with the International Law. This,
however, does not technically bind law enforcement although morally it does.

As technology evolves, it is necessary to establish a formal evaluation process and look at the
weapons and their effect ratio legis, from the perspective of the intent of the law, instead of
declaring prophylactic prohibitions on certain technical solutions. Otherwise the statutes may
rapidly become obsolete as they can be circumvented using alternative solutions complying
with the letter of the law.

The evaluation process should recognize that in an armed conflict there are not only the
combating parties but also bystanders and that all of them have the right to be protected from
unwarranted and superfluous injury. Law enforcement does not speak of combating parties
but legal authorities, bystanders and offenders. The concept is still the same. The borderline
between war, peace enforcement, peace keeping and traditional law enforcement has become
unclear making the need for unified use of force statutes and legal evaluation process ever
more urgent.

Assessment of injury potential is central for determining the legitimacy of a weapon and its
ammunition. It is essential to make a distinctive difference between assessment of injury
potential and assessment of effectiveness i.e. incapacitation potential. Although greater injury
usually also means greater incapacitation potential the relationship is not at all clear. As injury
deals with the physiological result, the incapacitation includes also the psychological and
more difficult to measure processes whose outcome is affected by determination, beliefs and

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Introduction 17

even previous experiences. The term “stopping power” is often used as a synonym and
incorrectly as if incapacitation potential would be the result of a physiological systems failure.

The problem in assessing the injury potential and the legitimacy of a means of lethal force
stems from the fact that if injury potential to bystanders and law enforcement officials is to be
minimised the injury potential to an offender often increases. The impacting bullet must have
sufficient energy to reliably do its job and expend its kinetic energy in the target not to create
a hazard to bystanders. This will cause an increase in injury to the offender. Unless a bullet
does effectively what it is expected to do, the conflict may be prolonged. More shots may be
fired and the danger for both bystanders and the law enforcement officials is increased.

Defining accurately what constitutes an unwarranted and superfluous injury is difficult out of
the context of the incident. The legitimacy of the use of force by the law enforcement official
depends on and must be proportional to the graveness and imminence of the threat imposed
by the offender. It cannot be precisely determined before an event has taken place. Certain
general measurable weapons technical definitions are still possible.

The research done for this dissertation lays the foundation for a valid wound ballistic
assessment of injury potential. It takes into account not only the offender but also the
bystanders and the law enforcement officials. As a result a standard test set is proposed for
producing the necessary exact comparison figures and in adherence to the Red Cross Wound
Classification method [Coupland 1993]. The decision on legitimacy can then be done by
competent authorities by weighing these figures against the legal principle of proportionality
between the threat and the force and the restrictions imposed by the International Law
considering also the moral principles of the society.
18 Review of the literature

4 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

4.1 Firearms and ballistics

4.1.1 The firearm
is the launching system for projectiles (bullets). A projectile of a modern firearm is mounted
on an open end of a casing with a primer in the opposite closed end containing propellant
called powder. When the firing pin of the gun is released by pressing the trigger it strikes the
primer which detonates igniting the powder. The burning powder generates a large amount of
hot gases. As the pressure behind the bullet mounts up it pushes the bullet along the barrel of
the weapon. This “ballistic cycle” is illustrated in figure 1. The combination of the amount of
powder, its burning velocity, size of combustion space, barrel length and projectile weight are
the major factors determining the velocity v0 (muzzle velocity) of the projectile (bullet) when
it exits the muzzle of the barrel.

Figure 1: The ballistic cycle of firing a cartridge. From the top: A cartridge, loaded in
the cartridge chamber, firing pin strikes the primer which ignites the powder, hot
powder gases push the bullet down the barrel, bullet exits the barrel with pressurised
gas, unburned powder and a typical yaw of some degrees.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 19

Firearms have traditionally been divided into the categories of handguns, rifles and shotguns
and their bullets respectively into low and high energy projectiles. Even if this division could
decades ago be somehow justified it today has little to do with reality. The division between
handguns and rifles and their separate ammunition types has long been obscure. Originally
handgun calibres like .357 Magnum and .44 Magnum have been used in rifles not to speak
about the legendary .44-40 of the “Old West”. The German Mauser M1898 [Smith 1994], the
Russian Stechkin [Zhuk 1992, Bolotin 1995] and the Chinese Type 80 [Hogg 1995] pistols
can be seen as paving the way for the new PDW (Personal Defence Weapon) class. The
recent advent of PDW weapons like FN P70 submachine gun and its handgun counterpart the
FN “FiveSeven” shooting the same 5.7x28 mm cartridge [Celens et al. 1996, Sanow 2001]
and their competitor Heckler & Koch PDW in calibre 4.5x30 mm [Crane 2004] has made the
categorisation totally obsolete. Their bullets have muzzle velocities ranging from about 500 to
over 700 m/s depending on the weapon.

A shotgun is not any longer a device for launching a handful of round pellets. Especially from
law enforcement perspective it is a multi-purpose launcher [Jussila 2003]. It is capable of
firing not only pellets but solid projectiles (“slugs”), sabotted bullets, tear gas, kinetic impact
projectiles that act as remote batons, breaching ammunition for forcing an entry and so forth.

Figure 2 shows some principal bullet types. A bullet may be made of a single material like
lead or copper alloy. They could also have a lead or steel core completely or partially
enclosed by a jacket typically made of copper alloy called tombak. A bullet’s design depends
on its purpose. A bullet can be constructed for maximum penetration (armour piercing),
expansion or even maximum injury. A bullet can be made to expand by using a cavity in the
tip (hollow point). It can also be designed to fragment through the use of structural weakness.
The injury potential of a bullet cannot, however, be determined by its looks. Even if a bullet
has an exposed lead tip it may not expand in soft tissue. According to the laws of physics its
behaviour is the function of its mass, velocity and structural strength and depends on the
resistance it encounters.

Figure 2 Bullets have been designed for both handguns, rifles and shotguns in all
imaginable solid lead, jacketed, hollow point, armour piercing, tracer, prefragmented
and incendiary configurations.
20 Review of the literature

The calibre (diameter) of the weapon barrel sets only the upper limit to the diameter of the
projectile. Virtually any smaller diameter bullet can be shot if a plastic sabot is used. With a
similar powder charge the sabot method may give a light sub calibre projectile a far higher
velocity than the heavier nominal calibre bullet would have.

One cartridge may also contain several independent projectiles. The most common type is a
shotshell. Other examples are multibullet and flechette cartridges. See figure 3. The same
general ballistic principles apply to single and multi projectile ammunition.

Figure 3: Multibullet,
rifle flechette, shotgun
flechette and shotshell
cartridges

Since almost any bullet can be made to perform in a variety of ways and be launched from a
variety of weapons it is even more important that a surgeon treating the wound concentrates
on the wound and does not speculate on the weapon. Even in civilian environment,
information on the weapon and ammunition used may not be readily available.

Bullets are often categorised with descriptive attributes like military, civilian, police, high
velocity and low velocity. Seen from the perspective of ballistics these categories mean very
little and can lead to false conclusions and generalisations. There are only mechanical
attributes of the bullet interacting with those of the atmosphere and the target. Certain
attributes make a certain ammunition type acceptable for police use but conclusions and
generalisations about the properties of ammunition because they are in police or military use
would be utterly false.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 21

Ballistics is the study of the motion, behaviour and effects of projectiles. It can be divided
[Moss et al. 1995] into internal, intermediate, external and terminal ballistics. Terminal
ballistics can be further divided into material and wound ballistics dealing with projectile
interaction with inanimate (material) and animate targets respectively.

4.1.2 Internal ballistics

Internal ballistics studies the events inside the weapon when the primer is detonated igniting
the propellant. From the wound ballistic aspect it is relevant to know the internal ballistic
factors affecting the bullet velocity.

Every powder type has its characteristic burning velocity. Burning is actually controlled
explosion since no external oxygen is required. It obeys Piobert’s law [Moss et al. 1995],
which states that the surface of a powder granule is burned away before the layer beneath it is
ignited. This allows the control of the burning velocity and pressure build-up by using either
decreasing, constant or increasing surface area of the powder granule (degressive, neutral and
progressive powders [Moss et al. 1995, Vihtavuori 2000]. In addition, special coating of
granules may be used [Vihtavuori 2000]. The burning velocity is often reduced in subzero
temperatures [Jussila 2001b and c, Vihtavuori 2000].

From the wound ballistic and tactical point of view it is important that the powder and primer
are as insensitive to external temperature as possible and thus contribute to consistent
performance.

A combination of the amount of powder, its burning velocity, burning volume and bullet
resistance in the barrel give a pressure curve depicting how fast and how high the pressure
builds up and how fast it subsides. An ideal powder charge burns almost completely before
the bullet exits the muzzle. Shortening the barrel will reduce the v0 when the same cartridge is
used. Reducing the powder charge will naturally do that too. Figure 4 shows an example of
the relationship between pressure, barrel length and bullet velocity.

Figure 4: An example of the relationship between chamber pressure, barrel length and
bullet velocity of a 5.56x45 mm cartridge calculated using Broemel QuickLoad software.
22 Review of the literature

When the pressure increases sufficiently high, it pushes the bullet into the barrel. The forces
involved cause radial expansion and torsional twist of the barrel as the bullet is forced into the
helical rifling. This and the advancing pressure wave in the barrel metal will make the barrel
oscillate [Rinker 1998].

4.1.3 Intermediate ballistics

Intermediate ballistics examines the events that take place when the bullet exits the muzzle in
transition from internal to external ballistics [Moss et al. 1995]. The high pressure gases
behind the bullet cause turbulence which will to an extent disturb the stability of the bullet
[Moss et al. 1995]. Due to small differences in the powder charge and its burning a bullet may
exit the barrel at different phases of the oscillation. This will have a deteriorating effect on the
accuracy of the bullet the amount of which depends on the oscillation characteristics [Rinker
1998]. Barrel oscillation may also increase the initial yaw of the bullet.

The angle between the longitudinal axis of the bullet and the trajectory, the yaw, can be up to
6 degrees or with a 7.62 x 39 mm assault rifle bullet about 4 degrees during the first few
metres of flight [Tikka 1996]. The stability is regained in most cases due to the stabilisation
mechanism described later. A good treatise on the statistical properties of yawing has been
presented by Sebourn and Peters [1996]. According to their mathematical model and
experimental data on a 5.56x45 mm M193 bullet shot with a barrel of 12 inch twist of rifling,
the initial yaw of about 4 degrees is reduced to about 1.5 degrees at 25 m and starts increasing
at about 400 m being 17 degrees at 800 m.

4.1.4 External ballistics

External ballistics studies the phenomena of the bullet in flight. The bullet is subjected to
aerodynamic forces that combined with its construction, internal ballistics and intermediate
ballistics may cause yawing, tumbling, precession and nutation of the bullet [Tikka 1989,
Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994, Rinker 1998].

A bullet will not fly accurately and straight unless it is stabilised because of minor symmetric
flaws in the bullet material [Rinker 1998] or centre of gravity being behind the centre of
pressure as is usually the case with aerodynamically efficient forms. There are two principal
stabilisation mechanisms: drag and spin. Drag stabilisation is done by means of a tail cone,
tail fins or a drag tail causing increased drag in the rear and thus keeping the projectile straight
[Moss et al. 1995]. Spin stabilisation means giving the projectile rapid rotation around its
longitudinal axis [Greener 1910, Moss et al. 1995]. This is done either by using a rifled barrel
or angled tail fins on the projectile. Spin makes even a tail heavy projectile fly straight
provided that the rotation speed is high enough. With too little spin the projectile will start
tumbling in mid air and may hit the target at any angle with unpredictable wound ballistic
results. To estimate the minimum rifling twist required to stabilise a given projectile the
Greenhill equation [Rinker 1998, Hatcher 1966, Kolbe 2000 refers to “Textbook of Small
Arms”, The Holland Press, 1929] is often used because it gives reasonable approximations of
the required twist and is very simple to use.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 23

[1] T = 150 / L

, where T is the length of full twist in calibres and L is the length of the projectile in calibres.
Eq. 1 when expressed in SI-units transforms into:

[1a] lrt = 150 * K2 / l

, where lrt is the length of one full twist of rifling (mm), K is calibre (mm) and l length of the
projectile (mm).

As said, Eq. 1 is only convenient to be used as an approximation. The gyroscopic stability of a

bullet depends on its shape and weight distribution, density of the penetrated substance
(usually air) and spin rate induced by the bullet velocity and rifling twist. The stability
coefficient is expressed [Moss et al. 1995, Moss 1997] as

8 A2 p 2
[2] sg =
B ρ V 2π d 2 C mα

, where ρ is the density of air and A the axial (longitudinal) moment of inertia, p the spin rate,
B the transversal moment of inertia, V the velocity, d the diameter and Cmά the coefficient of
yawing moment of the bullet. Eq. 2 is used in the design of bullets [de Veth 1982]. A bullet is
stable if sg ≥ 1. Actual design values are, however, closer to sg = 2 [Rinker 1998, Kolbe 2000].

According to ICAO-defined standard atmosphere [Kolbe 2000, Moss et al. 1995] air density
at sea level is 1.225 kg/m3 (0.001225 g/cm3) and density of muscle tissue 1060 g/cm3 [Sellier
and Kneubuehl 1994], Eq. 2 reveals that the spin rate required to maintain stability in muscle
tissue would have to be some 860 000 times faster than in the flight through air. As this is not
possible the bullets will in most cases rapidly lose their stability after entering the tissue and
start tumbling [Janzon 1997].

Eq. 2 is problematic to use since the axial and transversal moments are ordinarily not
published by ammunition manufacturers and would have to be measured using for example a
torsional pendulum [Kolbe 2000].

Too much spin will result in an overstabilised projectile. It will resist any change in the
trajectory and fly eventually at a marked yaw angle since the longitudinal axis of the bullet
will not follow the trajectory but will maintain its original angle of elevation. This will result
in increased drag and shorter range. The effects of stabilisation are illustrated in figures 5 and
6 [Moss et al. 1995].
24 Review of the literature

Figure 5: The bullet behaves in different ways depending on the degree of stability. A –
unstable, B – overstable, C –neutral.

Figure 6: A 3.6 g 5.56 mm bullet shot with a Colt M4 Commando at 10 m into a 0.5 mm
steel plate. The rifle had a 290 mm barrel and 7 inch rifling twist. Very little bullet yaw
could be measured.

At the very moment when the bullet leaves the barrel gravity starts to pull it downwards. The
faster the bullet and the better it retains its velocity the farther it will fly before hitting the
ground. The trajectory of the bullet will therefore be curved and depends on the angle of the
weapon, bullet mass, velocity, diameter, length and form. A form factor number (Fform) is
used to describe the bullet form [Hatcher 1966, Rinker 1998, Kneubuehl 1999]. The trajectory
also depends on the prevailing external atmospheric conditions of temperature, air pressure,

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 25

humidity and the velocity and direction of the wind [Rinker 1998, Hatcher 1966, Kolbe
2000]. The bullet’s aerodynamic efficiency i.e. capability to overcome the air resistance and
retain its velocity is usually described with ballistic coefficient Cb. The higher the Cb, the
better the velocity is retained [Rinker 1998].

Increasing the elevation (angle) of the weapon will increase the maximum range of a bullet up
to a point. Calculation with Broemel QuickTARGET exterior ballistic software gives a
7.62x51 mm calibre rifle bullet fired at an optimum angle a maximum range of 3 to 4
kilometres depending on bullet whereas the usual shooting distances in law enforcement are
100-200 metres. It is difficult even for an experienced shooter to estimate the trajectory at
very long distances. A critical situation with heightened stress and maybe fear of life makes
this task much more difficult [Jussila 1997].

Tactical range has been defined [Jussila 2001c] as the maximum range within which the
bullet’s trajectory deviates no more than an arbitrary distance of ±2.5 mm from the line of
sight when the weapon has been optimally zeroed to give the maximum tactical range i.e. to
describe the range a shooter can expect a bullet to hit at or very close to the point of aim. The
tactical range of a 9x19 mm calibre service pistol is not defined by the external ballistic
characteristics of the bullet but the shooter’s ability to accurately hit under stress. A pistol is a
difficult weapon to master [Bruchey and Frank 1983] and its tactical range can therefore be
considered to be limited to 10 – 15 m. The above Broemel-software gives tactical ranges for a
9x19 mm submachine gun and a 5.56x45 mm rifle as 65 and 120 m respectively. Beyond
those ranges the shooter must aim higher to compensate for the trajectory curvature, which
could be very difficult.

A “flat shooting” bullet is therefore desirable. As it means increase in velocity and increase in
kinetic energy of the bullet, it often also means increased potential for injury. Finding an
appropriate balance is one of the tasks when evaluating law enforcement service ammunition
candidates.

Crosswind pushes the bullet aside and either up or down depending on the direction of the
wind and the spin of the bullet [Rinker 1998]. Crosswind increases the difficulty of accurate
shooting. It pushes the bullet aside and either up or down depending on the direction of the
wind and the spin of the bullet [Rinker 1998]. Moreover the wind is rarely constant and may
vary throughout the trajectory making the estimation of its effects on the bullet rather difficult
in an actual situation. The susceptibility of a bullet to crosswind can, for comparison
purposes, be estimated using an arbitrary of, for example, 3 m/s transversally to the bullet
trajectory.

A weapon and its ammunition form a system. The combination of weapon properties, internal
ballistics, intermediate ballistics and external ballistics will determine the inherent accuracy of
this system. It depends on the shooter how fully he or she can utilize the accuracy potential.
The inherent accuracy is an important part of injury potential. Inherent accuracy only does not
describe the tactical accuracy. The effect of crosswind must be taken into account [Huffman
2000]. Huffman proposes calculating a resultant of wind drift and inherent accuracy for any
given range as
26 Review of the literature

[3] rta = rwind 2 + ria 2

, where rta is resultant of tactical accuracy, rwind is the amount of wind drift and ria the
radius of inherent accuracy. The ria can be defined as the mean dispersion radius of shots.

It is not immediately obvious that the bullet with the best inherent accuracy will also have the
best tactical accuracy. Poor accuracy increases the danger of injury to bystanders and the
police official through increased possibility of bullets completely missing the target and thus
prolonging the dangerous situation.

4.1.5 Terminal ballistics

Terminal ballistics is the science of projectile behaviour in the target and wound ballistics the
part of terminal ballistics dealing with what happens when a bullet strikes a living being. It is
characterised by very rapid events, high pressures and great deformation rates [Tikka 1989].
A bullet must have a significant amount of kinetic energy to reach the target, penetrate into it
and perform its task. The task for law enforcement is not to kill or even to injure but to stop
an offender from continuing to pose an imminent grave danger to the health and life of others.
Unfortunately, however, the outcome will often be a serious injury or death of the offender.
This fact, however, must not stop us from trying to avoid superfluous and unnecessary injury
in the spirit of the International Law and Human Rights.

A bullet impacting the target has an impact mass of mi (g) and velocity vi (m/s). Its kinetic
energy Ei (J) is defined as

[4] Ei = 0.5 * mi * vi2 / 1000

Impact energy Ei is partially dissipated into the target and performs work upon it. From Eq. 4
we can see that both the bullet mass but more significantly its velocity determines the amount
of kinetic energy. If the energy is not dissipated into the target, it is used somewhere else. The
wound ballistic energy equation can be expressed as:

[5] Er = Ei – Edef – Ed

, where Er is the residual kinetic energy, Ei the impact energy, Edef the energy used by bullet
deformation and Ed the energy dissipated into the target tissue. Since Ei has to be significant,
Edef and Ed must be maximised in order to minimise Er. The residual energy is a significant
factor describing the danger to bystanders when the bullet completely penetrates and exits the
primary target continuing its flight. The factor of Edef has often been overlooked in the
literature [Tikka 1989, Pirlot et al. 2001]. Pirlot also uses the term deformation energy in
conjunction with deformation of tissue simulant.

Kinetic energy dissipation (Ed) can be increased by bullet instability, deformation and
fragmentation. When a rigid tail-heavy bullet hits the target it tends to start tumbling because
the rate of spin is insufficient to maintain stability in dense medium like tissue. This increases
the cross-sectional area in the direction of penetration which increases the dissipation of
kinetic energy. The process is, however, somewhat out of control. The precise depth at which
tumbling occurs is difficult to predict as it depends on the yaw angle on impact, properties of
the tissue encountered and internal instabilities of the bullet [Peters et al. 1996].

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 27

Controlled deformation can in principle be achieved by a cavity in the tip of the bullet. Figure
7 shows some typical expanding bullet constructions. Changing the tip of the bullet changes
its aerodynamic form factor [Rinker 1998, Hatcher 1966], possibly reducing the ballistic
coefficient Cb and shortening the tactical range. Upon impact these bullets start expanding at
the tip. This makes the cross-sectional area larger and increases Ed. It will also shift the centre
of gravity of the penetrating bullet closer to the tip making a long bullet in theory more stable
in penetration. The dimensions and surface angles of the cavity together with the bullet
materials and construction determine the rate and type of expansion.

Figure 7: Constructions of controllably

deforming bullets. From top:
conventional hollow point, hollow
point with jacket chemically or
mechanically bonded to core to
prevent separation, expansion valve
with a wedge or ball forcing the bullet
to expand on impact. The valve
construction is used especially with
solid copper alloy monobloc bullets.

Bullet fragmentation can be controlled by jacket thickness, making prefragmentation incisions

in the jacket and by varying the strength of bonding between the bullet core and jacket.

4.2 The International Law

Restrictions on the use of force by the state officials are not new. The ancient Hindu
customary law, the “Gentoo Code”, translated in 1776 into English states:
“The magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or
with cannons or guns, or any kind of fire-arms, nor shall he slay in war any person born an
eunuch, nor any person who, putting his arms together, supplicates for quarter, nor any
person who has no means of escape.” [Greener 1910]

A number of attempts have been made in the past 150 years to define what is considered
acceptable for firearms and their effects. The documents can be divided into the military (war)
and law enforcement (policing) regimes, usually without universal applicability.

The St. Petersburg declaration (1868) renounced all projectiles under 400 g for
infantry rifles filled with explosive or incendiary compounds.

The Conference of Brussels (1874): article 13 prohibited ‘the employment of

arms, projectiles or material calculated to cause unnecessary suffering…’
28 Review of the literature

The Hague Convention (1899) stated that: ‘The contracting parties agree to
abstain from the use of bullets which expand or flatten easily in the human body,
such as bullets with a hard envelope which does not entirely cover the core or is
pierced with incisions’.

The Hague Convention Respecting Laws and Customs of War on Land (1907)
prohibited employment ‘of arms, projectiles or materials calculated to cause
unnecessary suffering’ (article 23). This wording was a translation from the
original French text and was later corrected to ‘..of a nature to cause..’ (Geneva
Protocol I, 1977, article 35, paragraph 2, see below).

United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 declares that

‘everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person’ (article 3), and that
‘no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment
or punishment’ (article 5).

The same principles are repeated in articles 2 and 3 of the Council of Europe
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
(Rome 1950).

The Protocol Additional to the UN Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to

The Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June
1977, (Article 36) obliges nations to arrange for a method to determine whether
any new weapon, means or method of warfare would be prohibited by
international law.

The UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (1979) defines

standards for law enforcement practice that are consistent with basic human
rights (p.273). Article 3 states that: ‘the use of firearms is considered an extreme
measure. Every effort should be made to exclude the use of firearms, especially
against children. In general, firearms should not be used except when a
suspected offender offers armed resistance or otherwise jeopardises the lives of
others and less extreme measures are not sufficient to restrain or apprehend the
suspected offender’.

The UN Resolution on Small-Calibre Weapon Systems (Geneva, 1979)

recognises that bullet expansion is not the only factor increasing the extent of
injury and that rapid advance in weapons technology requires further research
and standardised assessment methodology.

The UN Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain

Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to
Have Indiscriminate Effects (The Inhumane Weapons Convention, [IWC]
Geneva 1980, prohibits the use of weapons and ammunition ‘of a nature to
cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering’.

Paragraph 2 of the UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by

Law Enforcement Official (Geneva 1990) states that:

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 29

Governments and law enforcement agencies should develop a range of means as

broad as possible and equip law enforcement officials with various types of
weapons and ammunition that would allow for a differentiated use of force and
firearms. These should include the development of non-lethal incapacitating
weapons for use in appropriate situations, with a view to increasingly restraining
the application of means capable of causing death or injury to persons. For the
same purpose, it should also be possible for law enforcement officials to be
equipped with self-defensive equipment such as shields, helmets, bullet-proof
vests and bullet-proof means of transportation, in order to decrease the need to
use weapons of any kind.

Article 8 (paragraph 2(b) subsection xix) of the Rome Statute of the

International Criminal Court (1999), repeats the by now 100-year old statement
of the 1899 Hague Convention (above) declaring the use of expanding bullets as
a war crime.

As explained in the introduction the problem with the International Law, as to law
enforcement weaponry, is that most of the relevant “hard law” applies to military conflicts
and military weapons. The second major problem is that there is no international agreement
on what can be considered as superfluous injury and how it should be measured.

The Swiss delegation to the Expert Meeting of the International Committee of the Red Cross
presented a Draft Protocol on Small Calibre Weapon Systems (1994). Recognising that not
only bullet expansion but also other factors cause tissue injury, it proposes a limit for the
amount of kinetic energy that is released. It suggests prohibiting the use of ‘arms and
ammunition with a calibre of less than 12.7 millimetres which from a firing distance of at
least 25 meters release more than 20 joules of energy per centimetre during the first 15
centimetres of their trajectory within the human body’.

4.3 Penetrating projectile induced injury

4.3.1 Soft tissue injury
Significant amount of work has been done in the military domain to better understand the
wound ballistic phenomena associated with a bullet penetrating a human body. The rapid
progress in electronics and in measurement accuracy of instrumentation has, however, cast a
shadow over the validity of some old research results [Wilson 1921, Callender and French
1935, Callender 1943, deMuth 1966, deMuth and Smith 1966, deMuth 1974].

As a projectile begins to penetrate tissue the retarding force of the tissue causes it to
decelerate and lose kinetic energy [Peters 1990]. A penetrating bullet causes crushing,
laceration, stretching and contusion of the tissue in the front and around it. The entrance
wound is not necessarily very large as the impacting bullet is still undeformed and stable.
Once entering the subcutaneous tissue the bullet induced pressure creates a temporary cavity
first discovered by Woodruff [1898]. It was also found to pulsate [Berlin et al. 1976]. The
pressure will rapidly accelerate and stretch tissues radially up to and beyond their breaking
point until arrested by the elastic strength of the tissue. Having reached its maximum
dimensions the temporary cavity collapses due to tissue elasticity and re-expands in gradually
30 Review of the literature

subsiding pulsations [Janzon 1983, Tikka 1989]. The maximum expansion of the cavity has
been reported [Yoganandan and Pintar 1997] to occur in tissue simulant after the exit of the
projectile.

The cavitation resembles that of supercavitation [Savchenko 2001]. A blunt bullet nose
detaches the target tissue from the projectile sides reducing both drag and friction that slow
down the bullet spin. Supercavitation can be expected to both maintain bullet stability and
increase its soft tissue penetration [Jones et al. 1998]. This was experimentally observed when
the former Swedish police 9x19 mm flat nosed full metal jacketed Norma service bullet
weighing 8 g was compared with a conventional round nosed full metal jacketed 9 mm bullet
also weighing 8 g. The gelatine penetrations were over 120 cm and approximately 90 cm,
respectively [Jussila 2001, unpublished data].

The powerful suction caused by cavitation draws fragments of skin and clothing and also dirt
and other foreign matter through the entry and exit wounds into the wound channel making it
vulnerable to bacterial infection [Dziemian and Herget 1950, Dahlgren et al. 1979, Bowyer et
al. 1996]. When the pulsations of the temporary cavity subside the tissue is left with a
permanent cavity.

During penetration the bullet may lose its stability and start tumbling. It may also deform or
be designed to expand controllably. Peters developed a mathematical model [Peters 1990] to
predict the tumbling of a non-deforming bullet. A deforming bullet, however, will change its
form and thus its centre of gravity during penetration making the model non-applicable as
such. The forces acting upon the bullet may also tear it apart into fragments of various sizes.
The penetration behaviour depends on the bullet’s construction and on the retardation force it
encounters. All these events make the bullet to present an increased cross-sectional area
towards the penetration axis and thus transfer more of its kinetic energy into the tissue. The
portion of the total kinetic energy that is transferred into tissue depends not on impact velocity
or mass of the bullet per se, but on how the bullet behaves during penetration, whether it
tumbles, deforms or fragments and what the tissue induced retardation force is. These
phenomena make the bullet present a larger cross-sectional area in the direction of penetration
thus increasing the drag and dissipation of kinetic energy [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994, Tikka
1996].

The theory of Martel [Kneubuehl 1999] says

[6 ] Ed = Cv*V

, where Cv is a constant depending on the properties of the target material and V the volume
of the ensuing hole. Therefore the size of the inflicted area is directly proportional to the
dissipated energy Ed. Based on an analysis of a number of experiments with live pigs a
significant correlation between the amount of devitalised tissue and dissipated kinetic energy
(Ed) has been proved [Berlin et al. 1976 and 1979, Janzon and Seeman 1985, Janzon 1988,
Tikka 1989, Janzon 2004]. Ed has also been called “down-track” energy [Coupland 2000].

No regression function has, however, been proposed. Tissue devitalisation also seems to
depend on the size of the target being smaller in limbs of smaller size [Janzon et al. 1988 and
1997] resulting in scale dependence. A comprehensive scaling analysis of the wounding
process was done by Janzon [1983].

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 31

The most critical opponent of the “kinetic energy deposit” proportionality to tissue
devitalisation is Martin Fackler [Fackler 1987]. The core of Fackler’s reasoning is that too
much tissue is excised by the surgeons. This line of thinking does not seem to have gained
undivided acceptance and is countered by saying that unless devitalised tissue is removed a
severe anaerobic infection will result with heightened probability of perfringens (gas
gangrene) jeopardising the life of the patient [Janzon personal communication 2004].

The relationship between temporary cavity size and tissue devitalisation (cell death) has not
been established [Coupland 2000]. The severity of the effects is largely dependent on the
location of the wound [Fackler et al. 1988]. Cavitation is caused by pressure setting the tissue
into motion. The peak internal pressure [Eisler et al. 1996] does not seem to correlate with the
amount of devitalised tissue. This suggests that the devitalisation of soft tissue not in direct
contact with the penetrating bullet is caused by the pressure wave induced rapid acceleration
and compression that crush the cell structures [Sondén et al 2000]. Temporary cavitation
could rupture blood vessels, intestines or air filled cavities [Janzon 1997]. It can be compared
to blunt trauma and its effects could be quantified [EuroNCAP 2001, Bir and Viano 1999, Bir
2000]. A mathematical model for predicting tissue damage has been presented [Peters 1990],
however, without a definition of what is meant by “damage”.

Different organs show different tolerance to penetrating wounds. Lungs have a low specific
weight, 0.4-0.5, and are very flexible. They provide little resistance to the bullet which as a
result dissipates little energy. Temporary cavitation and the resulting injury are limited
(Janzon 1997, Ryan et al. 1997). DeMuth (1966) reports that there is a marked difference
between penetrating and tangential hits with the latter causing greater lung injury. Temporary
cavitation in liver causes serious tearing as the organ is rather fragile. The breaking stresses of
swine heart, spleen and liver have been measured as 14.1, 8.1 and 4.6 kp/cm2 [Seki and
Iwamoto 1998].

The exiting bullet makes an exit wound which is usually larger than the entry wound as the
bullet has already deformed or may be in an unstable state exiting base or side first. The result
will in many cases be a star like rupture [Janzon 1983, Janzon 1997]. Although the size of the
exit wound is included in the Red Cross wound classification [Coupland 1993 and 2000] and
a large exit wound should be considered a warning sign of extensive internal tissue
destruction [Janzon 1997] its effects are not totally negative. First of all the existence of an
exit wound allows access to the wound channel from both ends and signifies that at least most
of the projectile has exited from the wound. In uncomplicated muscle wounds it also increases
wound drainage which assists in healing [Hampton 1961, Dziemian et al. 1961, Fackler et al.
1989, Hollerman et al. 1990].

4.3.2 Fragmentation
Disintegration of the bullet during penetration leaves metallic and depending on bullet
construction also non-metallic fragments in the wound. An illustration of fragmentation is
shown in figure 8. An example of 5.56 mm bullet fragments recovered from a block of
gelatine is shown in figure 9.
32 Review of the literature

Figure 8: Fragmentation nomenclature. A – bullet before impact, B – deformation after

impact with varying degree of fragmentation. C – bullet main continues penetration and
starts tumbling. D – Bullet main exits with core and jacket possibly separating. Core-
jacket separation could also take place inside the simulant.

Figure 9: An example of bullet fragment dispersion at different depths in gelatine

Fragments could also be located relatively far from the permanent wound channel (Figure 10).
These fragments increase the injury in several ways [Fackler et al. 1984, Bowyer et al. 1997,
Leppäniemi personal communication 2004].
- they act as a nidus for infection. A fragment which penetrated the colon may cause
severe infection in or outside the peritoneal cavity
- they may erode into blood circulation and cause embolism [Mattox et al. 1979,Braun
2003, Corbett et al. 2003]
- they may release metallic ions causing systemic upset. If the bullet contains lead,
fragmentation increases blood lead concentration [McQuirter et al. 2004].
- they increase the surface area of the wound
- they may be located in such a place that they cannot be removed although the danger
of longer term damage is possible (brain, spinal cord, heart etc.)

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 33

Figure 10: An example

of the wound channel
of an expanding 5.56
mm bullet in 10%
gelatine as seen from
the direction of the
gun. A fragment has
penetrated
transversally about 50
mm from the bullet
path.

A ricochet fragment can also cause serious injuries. These fragments can be compared to
artillery fragments. If the impact velocity of a 5.56x45 mm bullet is 900 m/s and the velocity
of a 0.1 g ricochet fragment is 600 m/s (arbitrary estimate), its velocity at 10 m distance may
still be about 300 m/s according to the fragment deceleration table [Vähäkangas 1996].

4.3.3 Skin injury

Skin is very resistant to ballistic injury. It may tear, but usually very little devitalised skin
needs to be removed [Janzon 1997]. In order to establish the threshold velocity required for
penetrating the human skin quite a lot of research has been done. Some researchers have
removed the skin from human cadavers and tested it in isolation [Grundfest et al. 1945,
Sperrazza and Kokinakis 1968]. Considering the importance of skin as a part of an energy
absorbing system these studies can hardly be used. Furthermore, the penetration process of
skin pinned against a solid background is based primarily on crushing. Thus tests performed
with skin samples alone leave room for doubt as the penetration may be too much based on
the effect of either crushing or tensile stress caused by stretching instead of their combination.

The first one to investigate the penetrability of human skin was Journée in 1907 (in [DiMaio
1981] and [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994]). Journée reported that a lead sphere, 11.25 mm in
diameter and weighing 8,5 g at vi = 60 m/s produced superficial skin damage without
penetration and that at 70 m/s perforated the skin and penetrated several centimetres into the
underlying tissue. There is, however, no record on the location of the test shots on the cadaver
and the precision of measured vi values could also be speculated.

Mattoo [1984] reported shooting lead spheres of 9,14 mm diameter (000 buckshot) weighing
4,5 g into the thigh section of human cadavers. The threshold velocity, vth, required for
penetration was 65 m/s.
34 Review of the literature

Tausch et al. [1978] conducted extensive experiments shooting 4 mm, 9 mm and .45 lead
spheres and bullets into upper thighs of human cadavers to find out vth. A total of 212 test
shots were fired. Tausch reported incorrect weights for lead spheres. Calculating for example
9 mm sphere volume and multiplying it with the density of ”lead” bullet alloy of 11,2 g/cm3
gives 4.28 g instead of reported 5.3 g. It should also be noted that so called lead bullet is not
pure lead (density 11.3 g/cm3) but typically contains for example 2% tin and 6% antimony.
The threshold velocities for the 4 mm, 9 mm and .45 lead spheres were 68.7, 68.7 and 56.7
m/s, respectively.

DiMaio et al. [1982] shot 4,5 mm and .22 calibre air gun diabolo pellets and .38 calibre round
nose lead bullets into lower extremities of human cadavers. DiMaio gives the following vth
values: vth ( k = 4,5 mm) = 101 m/s, vth (k =.22 inches) = 75 m/s and vth (k =.38 inches) = 58
m/s.

Missliwetz [1987] made an extensive (2514 shots) and thorough study on the subject. He shot
various 4 and 4,5 mm air gun pellets into thigh and back of human cadavers consisting of 40
adults and 10 children. Recognising the problem of what can be considered as penetration he
defined vst for bullets that got stuck in the skin and vth for those that completely penetrated
the skin. The average vst for a 4,5 mm projectile in adult human thigh skin was 99 to 130 m/s
depending on projectile type whereas average vth was 109 to 136 m/s.

Several researchers have deduced that skin penetrability is dependent primarily on the
sectional density S of the projectile ( S = mass divided by cross sectional area of the bullet in
g / cm2) and given their proposal for threshold velocity equation:

[7] vth = 14.1/ S [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994, Jauhari and Bandyopadhyay
1976, Jauhari and Mahanta 1978]. The proposed equation uses S in g / mm2. Making it
commensurate with the other equations for g / cm2 gives:

[7a] vth = 14.1/ (S / 100)

A
[8] vth = K + b [Sperrazza and Kokinakis 1968] , where K for human skin is
M
125, A is cross-sectional area in cm2, M bullet mass (g) and b a constant of 22.

[9] vth = 334 / S * 10 [Mattoo 1984]

[10] vth = 277.7 * e

–0.482 S [Tausch et al. 1978]

Several publications report the tensile strength and elongation at break of human skin
[Holzmann et al. 1971, Daly 1982, Bader and Bowker 1983, Vogel 1987, Bartell and Mustoe
1989, Sugihara et al. 1991, Edwards and Marks 1995,]. The stretch velocities obtained with
mechanical devices are, however, very low compared with those caused by bullets. Despite
the fact that skin exhibits a rate dependent resistance when stretched [Edwards and Marks
1995] these reports must be looked into because no reports on high speed stretch have been
found. They also give a good estimate on how skin properties vary with location and age.
Standard low velocity tests are also useful for estimating materials behaviour in general.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 35

Holzmann et al. [1971] made in vitro measurements on skin samples taken from above the
sternum. The reported mean thickness was 1.9 mm, tensile strength 1938 g/mm2 = 19.38 MPa
and elongation at break 60,6%. At the age of 35 the values seem to be either at or very close
to maximum.

Bartell and Mustoe [1989] compared the properties of rat, guinea pig, pig and dog with that of
human skin obtained from abdominoplasty surgical specimens and verified its extensibility
with in vivo extensometer. They found out that the average human skin thickness (dermis and
epidermis) ranges from approximately 1 to 4 mm. The modulus of elasticity was 0.136 ±
0.038 psi/%strain, stress / relaxation 66.6 ± 1.8 % and elasticity in vivo 37.2 ± 4.1 %. The
precise locations of test samples were not given. The interesting thing, however, is that when
measured with above parameters human skin is very close to that of a dog. The skins of rat,
guinea pig and pig are not even close. The pig is generally considered as the best experimental
animal [Schanz 1979].

Sugihara et al. [1991] has conducted in vivo uniaxial tension experiments to find out how skin
extensibility varies according to location and age. According to Sugihara the extensibility
slightly decreases with age on chest and anterior thigh whereas abdomen skin extensibility
does not seem to change significantly. At the defined target person’s age of 30 the chest and
thigh skin seem to have similar elongation.

Vogel [1987] conducted an extensive in vitro research involving 348 autopsy specimens.
Samples were taken from the skin above the sternum. Dumbbell shaped specimens were cut
along the same axis. The specimens were 50 mm long and the narrow section was 4 mm wide.
At the age of 30 the skin thickness was approximately 1.75 mm, tensile strength 20 MPa and
elongation at break 72%.

4.3.4 Bone injury

Bone has greater density, with specific weight of 1.11, and strength than the surrounding
tissue. It is also non-elastic. Both a direct hit and cavitation pressure can cause bone injuries
[Janzon 1983]. In a direct hit the bullet starts creating temporary cavity upon entering the soft
tissue in front of the bone. The cavity extends along the bone with the suction carrying debris
and infectious material between the soft tissue and the bone. The bullet will shatter the bone
and the pressure will push the bone parts axially outwards. This is probably what Amato et al.
[1989] mean when talking about temporary cavity of the bone. The cavitation force will cause
a bone like femur to strike hard against the joints. This may cause immediate or delayed
injury but no references on the subject have been found.

The shattered bone will start moving radially outwards together with the temporary cavity
formed in the surrounding soft tissue [Amato et al. 1989, Ragsdale and Josselson 1988] with
some of the fragments returning back nearly to their original position when the cavitation
subsides. Some of the fragments will also follow the direction of the bullet, possibly because
of suction, because the forward movement has been noticed to take place after the initial
expansion of the temporary cavity [Amato et al. 1989].

There has been a debate whether the bone fragments will become secondary projectiles with
destructive capability of their own [Amato et al. 1974, Amato et al. 1989, DeMuth and Smith
1966]. Becoming secondary projectiles would require a significant “push” by the pressure
caused by the bullet. This might, however, break the bone fragments that would then rapidly
36 Review of the literature

lose their injury potential. It therefore seems more likely that the bone fragments are moved
into the wound channel by suction and do therefore usually not have any significant
destructive force of their own. There are, however, some unreported accounts on bone
fragments from the thigh bone having penetrated into the abdomen and even to the thorax and
lungs [Janzon personal communication 2004].

Figures 11 and 12 show a synthetic bone tube imbedded in gelatine and penetrated by a 9 mm
pistol bullet [Jussila 2000, unpublished data]. Most of the bone fragments are close to the
parent bone with some of them drawn into the wound channel. None of the fragments have
formed a wound channel of their own. Kneubuehl and Thali [2003] obtained similar results
shooting 7.62 mm rifle bullets through gelatine embedded swine bones and synthetic bone
tubes.

Figure 11 : An example of a 9x19 mm

jacketed pistol bullet penetration of
gelatine imbedded synthetic bone

Figure 12 Synthetic generic

bone tube imbedded in 10%
gelatine and penetrated by a
9 mm FMJ bullet. The
silicone “periosteum” has
been removed to more
clearly show the fracture.
Note the lack of longitudinal
fractures in the bone tube.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 37

Bone injury classification by three fracture zones has been proposed [Robens and Küsswetter
1982] based on experimental shootings of cadaver tibiae. The central injury and primary
fracture zone consists of completely missing or disorganised bone fragments. The secondary
zone consists of fragments detached from the parent bone but still approximately in their
original position. The tertiary zone consists of area with linear cracks and fractures.

Huelke et al. (1968) shot human cadaver long bones with 6.3 to 10 mm steel spheres and
obtained penetration threshold velocities of 200 m/s and 120 m/s for cortical and cancellous
bone, respectively. It seems that cancellous bone will experience less damage than the dense
cortical bone [Belkin 1978, Huelke and Darling 1964]. A rifle bullet hitting a femur at vi =
800 m/s may lose only 30 m/s in penetration [Kneubuehl 1994] but may lose its stability.

4.3.5 Skull and vertebral injury

The skull consists of 22 bones joined together into a structural unit which contains the brain
and protects it. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the cerebellum and brainstem including
medulla oblongata. Although the retardation properties of the brain seem to be similar to those
of muscle tissue the strength is much lower [Janzon 1997]. Primary head injuries are
categorised into skull fractures, focal injuries and diffuse brain injuries. Direct bullet hits
always cause a serious injury. A tangential hit may also cause serious brain injuries through
shock, pressure and cavitation [Watkins et al. 1988 referenced by Janzon 1997]. A tangential
hit also causes a torsion motion of the head which can cause serious injuries [Aare 2003] even
when a helmet is worn. Penetrating spinal injuries are serious and difficult to treat [Kleider
1969, Heiden et al. 1975, Fine et al. 1976, Gellad et al. 1988, Doll and Baum 1989].

4.3.6 Remote and delayed effects

The fast acoustic shock wave and a slower pressure wave created by the motion of cavitating
tissues may cause both temporally delayed and remote to the wound channel injurious effects.
A good discussion on the subject can be found in Sellier and Kneubuehl (1994) and Janzon
(1997). The shock wave produces mechanical irritation which generates electrical activity in
the nerve [Wehner and Sellier 1982]. It stimulates the nerves and theories exist on possible
injury mechanisms. If both sympatic and parasympatic nerves controlling the heart are
stimulated with different intensity a heart failure could occur [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994].
Ordog et al. (1994) have studied the effects of the acoustic shock wave. It still remains a
somewhat controversial issue [Fackler et al. 1989 and 1990, Fackler 1996] with Fackler
claiming that Ordog has confused the acoustic wave with the pressure wave of temporary
cavitation.

The pressure of the acoustic wave could be as high as 900 psi (34 MPa) and velocity
approximately 1550 m/s [Peters 1990]. Its duration, however, is a couple of microseconds
[Hollerman 1990 referring to Bowen and Bellamy 1988]. It does not move tissues and is thus
claimed not to cause injuries [Harvey 1946, Fackler 1985]. Fackler uses the lithotriptor as an
example of the harmlessness of acoustic waves. There is, however, evidence on vascular and
kidney tissue injury [Sonden et al. 2000, Shao et al. 2003, Zhu et al. 2004].

A pressure wave compresses tissues and has some injurious effects on nerves and vascular
system. It extends quite far in the body [Tikka 1982] and could compress blood vessels
creating a pressure wave travelling through the veins at the speed determined by the elasticity
and radius of the vessel. This or direct pressure on carotid sinus could cause anomalies in
38 Review of the literature

blood pressure. It could also cause rupture of a blood vessel or loosen endothelial cells that
could later cause a thrombosis. Spherical steel pellet shot into the hind leg of a pig dissipated
728 J of kinetic energy and caused mean peak pressure of 150 kPa in the brain [Suneson et al.
1988]. As a result minor blood-barrier damage in the form of small vein and capillary leakage
could be observed. The pressure wave was also found to cause remote damage to the myelin
sheaths of nerve axons. Similar results were obtained also by Lai et al. [1996]. One can,
however, criticise the “remoteness” as the bullets passed at 1 to 3 cm distance from the sciatic
nerve of the dog. The nerve was certainly within the range of temporary cavitation.

Janzon (1997) refers to Liu et al. (1990) saying that after thigh injury of anaesthetised pigs
blood extravasation and haemorrhage could be observed in small blood vessels and capillaries
of the brain, heart and other organs.

A bullet containing lead and its fragments may cause delayed systemic reactions if left in the
tissue. The blood lead levels increase for up to 3 months [McQuirter et al. 2004]. The effects
of multiple hits may cause delayed multiple organ failure [Saadia and Schein 1999] because
of reactivation of the inflammatory response caused by subsequent hits.

Bullets and their fragments have been observed to be relocated by the circulatory system
[Ordog et al. 1988, Bartlett 2003, Braun 2003, Corbett et al. 2003, Rich et al. 1978, Mattox et
al. 1979 Rich and Mattox referred to by Corbett]. This embolism could later cause significant
complications.

4.3.7 Injury assessment

Several attempts have been made to correlate bullet properties with induced incapacitation.
These attempts have not looked at the level of injury from the legal viewpoint of maux
superflus, but more as a quest for increasing the probability of instant incapacitation.

As the objective of the police is to stop life endangering activity of an offender quickly and
effectively the incapacitation or “stopping power” approach has certain validity. General J.S.
Hatcher presented the concept of stopping power in his book “Pistols and Revolvers and their
use” in 1927 and later “relative stopping power” (RSP) [Hatcher 1935]. According to Hatcher
the incapacitation potential of a projectile was proportional to impact momentum times the
bullet’s cross-sectional area [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994 pp. 242-245, Kneubuehl 1999].

[11] RSP = 17.9*mi*vi*A*Fform

where A is the cross-sectional area of the bullet and Fform the form factor (see 4.1.4.)

U.S. Army expanded Hatcher’s theory by hypothesizing that incapacitation “stopping power”
(StP ) was a function of kinetic energy deposited in 15 cm of gelatine tissue simulant
[Sturdivan 1969 referred to in Bruchey and Frank 1983a]. DiMaio expanded the theory in
1974 on handgun effectiveness [DiMaio 1974 referred to in Bruchey and Frank 1983a and
Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994 , Kneubuehl 1999].

[12] StP = 0.114*Ed*A*Fform

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 39

J. Taylor, a british big-game hunter developed a “Knockout value” (KO) in 1948 to describe
the effectiveness of hunting ammunition [Kneubuehl 1999].

[13] KO = 0.000285*mi*vi*Ki

Weigel [in Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994 pp. 246-247] assumed (1975) that the effectiveness
(WH) was proportional to the volume of the shooting channel in wood.

[14] WH = V = 0.00024*mi*vi1.5

, where V is the volume of the bullet channel produced in wood.

In 1983 the American National Institute of Justice published an extensive study [Bruchey and
Frank 1983a and 1983b] proposing Relative Incapacitation Index, (RII). The RII was
calculated as a function of shape and diameter of the temporary cavity and probability of
injuring a vital organ, but cannot be determined without a great number of experiments and
was found impractical. Subsequently a “Power Index Rating” (PIR ) was published [Matunas
1984].

[15] PIR = 27.4*Ei*ET*D

, where ET is an “energy transfer factor” and D a “diameter value”. Both values can be
considered to contain a significant subjective element and introduce some doubt as to the
validity of the equation [Kneubuehl 1999].

A German professor of forensic medicine, K.G. Sellier assumed that the wounding potential
of a bullet would be proportional to the released energy.

∆E Ei * A
[16] =C*
∆S mi

, where C is a constant [Kneubuehl 1999].

Occasional attempts to describe “stopping power” by analysing statistics on real shooting

incidents have been made [Marshall and Sanow 1992]. Marshall and Sanow attempted to find
the handgun bullet with the best “one shot stopping power”. The statistical analysis contains
serious flaws and has been widely discredited [Roberts and Wolberg 1992, Kotzar 2004].

Some debate can be found in literature on whether and how well the kinetic energy dissipated
into tissue correlates with the amount of devitalised tissue [Fackler 1986]. One argument is
that since subjective assessment is involved in estimating the amount of devitalised tissue, the
previous knowledge on presumed kinetic energy of the bullet may affect the surgeon’s
judgment.

Detailed analysis of incapacitation theories can be found in Sellier and Kneubuehl [1994] and
also in Kneubuehl [1999]. Based on actual shootings [Geller and Scott 1992] it, however,
seems that in about half of the shootings in USA more than one hit was needed to stop an
offender and that the only certain way to stop somebody instantly is a shot through the central
nervous system (CNS). This view is also shared by the Swedish research group of Janzon,
Rybeck, Schanz et al.. The effect of a shot elsewhere on the body can justifiably be
40 Review of the literature

hypothesised to depend on more than purely physiological factors. Medication, narcotics or

alcohol may affect the sense of pain and the way a person reacts to injury. Psychological and
emotional factors like the will to fight, determination, conviction, beliefs and maybe even
previous experiences and cultural background make the outcome less certain [Kneubuehl
1999, Janzon personal communication 2004]. In addition the incapacitation theories do not
consider the factors of fragmentation or excessive penetration and are therefore not suitable
for comprehensive analysis of injury potential from legal and law enforcement perspective.

The concepts of incapacitation and wounding potential have occasionally been used as
synonyms in the literature. Incapacitation is the result of both physiological and psychological
reactions whereas wounding potential is a measure for morphological and physiological
damage. These two concepts should not be mixed.

The Swiss delegation to the Expert Meeting of the International Committee of the Red Cross
presented a Draft Protocol on Small Calibre Weapon Systems (1994) [Prokosch 1995].
Recognising that not only bullet expansion but also other factors cause tissue injury, it
proposes a limit for the amount of kinetic energy that is released. It suggests prohibiting the
use of ‘arms and ammunition with a calibre of less than 12.7 millimetres which from a firing
distance of at least 25 meters release more than 20 joules of energy per centimetre during the
first 15 centimetres of their trajectory within the human body’.

The Swiss proposal says nothing about what should happen after the first 15cm. However,
considering the results of forensic investigations in the Balkans [Rainio et al. 2001], it should
not be ignored. It does not seem to have received a very enthusiastic reception [Parks 2001],
since the Second Review Conference of the Inhumane Weapons Convention in December
2001 still calls for adoption of a new protocol limiting the amount of energy deposited
[Maresca 2002], saying that its military, technical, medical, legal and financial implications
should be discussed. Nothing is said about law enforcement.

Of the clinical assessment methods the Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS) method
[Farquharson-Roberts et al. 1997] of wounds in the extremities may be valid, but tries to
make guesses about the weapon, ammunition and kinetic energy involved. Considering what
was previously stated about weapon and ammunition performance and that the information on
them is not readily available to a surgeon even in civilian setting the MESS method can
hardly be considered realistic.

The Red Cross Wound Classification (RCWC) [Coupland 1993 and 2000, Bowyer et al.
1997] is simple to use and can also be to some extent used for simulated gunshot wounds.
More importantly it makes no references to the weapons and ammunition used. The method
takes into account the entry and exit wound sizes, permanent cavity size, possible bone
fractures, injury to vital structures and the number of metallic bodies in the wound i.e.
fragmentation. Table 1 shows the scoring method in detail. The method has been criticised for
not taking the neurological injury into account [Bowyer et al. 1997].

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 41

Table 2: The Red Cross Wound Classification [Coupland, 1993]

Variable Value
E = entry Maximum diameter (cm)
X = exit Maximum diameter (cm), 0 if no
exit
C = cavity C = 0 or 1 Can the cavity take 2
fingers? Yes = 1
F = fracture F = 0 (no), 1 (simple fracture, hole
or insignificant comminution) or 2
(clinically significant comminution)
V = vital structure (note 1) Are brain, viscera (breach of dura,
pleura or peritoneum) or major
vessels injured? V=0 (no), V=1
(yes)
M = metallic body Bullet or fragments visible on X-
ray. None: M=0, One metallic
body: M=1, Multiple metallic
bodies: M=2

Neither RCWC nor MESS consider the amount of devitalised tissue which does not recover
and provides for an excellent growth surface for bacteria unless removed. As it is permanently
lost it should not only be included in injury assessment but be one of the central items. The
rule of four C’s is ordinarily used for identifying the devitalised tissue:
- lack of Contractility
- altered Consistency
- altered Colour
- lack of Capillary bleeding

The rule of four C’s is not unanimously accepted and more conservative approach of excising
only the obviously detached tissue has been presented [Fackler 1989, Santucci and Chang
2004]. As stated previously, this view may lead to severe anaerobic infection and possible gas
gangrene [Janzon personal communication 2004].

4.4 Simulating bullet interaction using live and natural tissues

Wound ballistic simulation can be defined as the means to examine the injurious effects of a
firearm launched projectile and to use the results for optimising its terminal performance. It is
obvious that the effects of ammunition on human beings cannot be tested in vivo and credible
simulations must be used. Even when extensive computer simulations [Ogunyemi et al. 2002,
Peters et al. 1996] are available and allow the shooting mathematical models of bullets into
mathematical models of targets real bullets must eventually be used with real guns.
Considering the requirements of the International Law the effects caused by a certain
ammunition type fired from a certain weapon must be examined to assess their legitimacy
prior to deployment and later for quality assurance and to improve the validation of
simulation.
42 Review of the literature

4.4.1 Live, anaesthetised animals

of all kinds have been used for wound ballistic research. An animal model enables the study
of physiological parameters and responses to the trauma [Janzon 1997]. Of all animals the pig
is the most widely used [Schantz 1979]. If a standard assessment method is to be established
animal tests can be used for validation of the method but not to produce repeatable and
comparable results. The non-homogeneity of living tissue causes dispersion of the results. A
large number of repetitions may be required to gain sufficient statistical confidence. The
animals are far too difficult to handle and involve too many variables. If systemic responses
are not to be studied and only the energy dissipation and wounding potential of a bullet are to
be assessed, animal testing can be considered unnecessary because good simulants are
available.

4.4.2 Humans
Military armed conflicts and civilian shooting incidents provide a wealth of information on
firearms injuries. There are some 13 databases full of injury data in U.S.A only [Mercy et al.
1998, Annest and Mercy, 1998]. Relevant ballistic facts are, however, not recorded rendering
it impossible to correlate injury data with theoretical wound ballistic research. Human patients
and cadavers could provide useful data for the development and validation of simulation
methods [Vogel 1987, Missliwetz 1987, Tausch et al. 1978]. The physical properties of soft
tissue and internal organs of cadavers may change by time [Seki and Iwamoto 1998 referring
to Yamada 1970]. The cadavers are necessarily stored in cold temperature which also changes
the physical properties. These facts should be taken into account when interpreting the results.

4.4.3 Natural vital organs

of both humans and animals have been used for ballistic studies when cast into gelatine
[Lewis et al. 1982, Missliwetz and Wieser 1986]. These organs will provide useful
information. Due to their structural complexity it is difficult to see how they could be replaced
with synthetic simulants. Coudane et al. [1982] shot cadaveric human legs with various types
of hunting weapons. Ragsdale and Josselson [1988] shot cadaveric human distal femurs and
proximal tibiae embedded in 20% gelatine. Unfortunately the bone placement in gelatine was
inaccurate and the results were not analysed using any systematic scale, which had already
been published [Robens and Küsswetter 1982].

4.5 Synthetic simulants

Simulants can be divided into soft tissue, skin, bone and skull simulants. Literature tends to
concentrate on soft tissue simulants [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994, Janzon 1997, Berlin et al.
1983, Fackler 1988a and 1988b, Pirlot et al. 2001].

4.5.1 Soft tissue simulants

Principally two types of tissue simulants have been used. The Swedish researchers started
using specially prepared glycerine soap in the 1970’s [Berlin et al. 1976 and 1977]. Ballistic

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 43

gelatine has been used longer. There are also other attempts to use water, wet phone books,
wet paper, clay, duct seal, transparent gel candle [Uzar et al. 2003] and even metallic lead
[Missliwetz and Wieser 1986]. Special manufactured glycerine soap and hydrogels prepared
from water solutions containing 10-20 mass-% gelatine have long been used to simulate
muscle tissue [Harvey et al. 1962, Thompson 1993, and others].

Ballistic gelatine is usually used in 10 or 20% nominal concentrations. The actual

concentration should be adjusted i.e. calibrated for every batch of gelatine powder to give
precisely the desired penetration and to compensate for possible manufacturing variances.
Gelatine blocks are prepared by dissolving the calibrated amount of usually 250A bloom
gelatine powder into warm water, adding possibly preservative and pouring the solution into
moulds where it first cools off and then solidifies. To avoid dehydration and unnecessary
contamination by airborne microbes the moulds should be covered with plastic foil. The
gelatine blocks are then taken to refrigerator for storage and cooling into prescribed usage
temperature. Before use the gelatine block properties are verified by shooting 4.5 mm steel
pellets into them and measuring both impact velocity (vi) and penetration depth (lw). An
accepted de facto standard [Fackler and. Malinowski 1988] is that at vi = 180 m/s the lw
should be 85 ± 5 mm. The terms calibration and verification are often used inaccurately in
various reports.

The first one to use gelatine as ballistic simulant was Harvey [Harvey et al. 1962] in the
1940’s. He used 20% concentration at +24 oC. Lewis [Lewis et al. 1982] poured 6 litres of
90-95 oC water over 1200 g of 250A gelatine, stirred at low speed for 3 minutes before adding
3 ml of cinnamon oil as microbial growth inhibitor (MGI). The solution was allowed to stand
still in room temperature for 1 hour and was then poured into moulds that were allowed to
cool in room temperature overnight. The blocks were then stored at 5 – 8 oC tightly wrapped
in plastic.

The classic and often referred recipe for gelatine is that of Fackler and Malinowski [1985].
They recommend using 10% solution i.e. for example 1000 g of gelatine with 9 litres of
water. The gelatine powder is poured into cold (7 – 10 oC) water, mixed and let stand in
refrigerator for 2 hours. The mix is then slowly heated in water bath to +40 oC and slowly
stirred until all gelatine has dissolved. 5 ml per litre of propionic acid is added to inhibit
microbial activity. The solution is poured into moulds and set into a refrigerator (7 – 10 oC)
for overnight. The blocks are then removed from moulds, wrapped tightly in plastic bags and
stored in refrigerator at +4 oC for at least 36 hours before use. This recipe is followed also by
Sellier and Kneubuehl [1994] and Thompson [1993].

As the method is rather tedious several modifications have appeared. Berlin [Berlin et al.
1983] mixed 20% of gelatine straight into distilled water at 85 – 90 oC, used no MGI and let
the solution stand in refrigerator at +4 oC for a minimum of 72 hours. The gelatine was
conditioned to +20 oC before use.

Firearms Tactical Institute [2000] recommend dissolving 1000 g of gelatine into 6 litres of hot
tap water (49 – 60 oC ) and mixing well, adding 5 ml of propionic acid and then 3 more litres
of water (49 – 60 oC). The filled moulds are allowed to stand in room temperature for 4 hours
before placing them in refrigerator (+4 oC) for at least 48 hours.

Federal Bureau of Investigation [Vyse 2003] is claimed to use 10% solution into water at + 60
o
C. “Foam Eater” is added to prevent foaming and instead of propionic acid cinnamon oil is
44 Review of the literature

used. The filled moulds are allowed to stand in room temperature for 4 hours before placing
them in refrigerator (+ 4 oC ) for at least 36 hours.

H.P. White Laboratories [1998] follow the Fackler and Malinowski recipe for 10% gelatine
with the exception that the gelatine is not conditioned to +4 but also used in 7-10 oC for at
least 20 hours. Yoganandan and Pintar [1997] use the same recipe but use distilled water.

The preparation of gelatine has long been considered difficult and requiring extreme care
[Fackler and Malinowski 1988, Post and Johnson 1995]. The first attempt to quantify the
effects of different preparation parameters was done by Post and Johnson [1995]. The results
were somewhat inconclusive due to lack of statistical confidence. Many sources quote Fackler
who warns about detrimental effects of excessive heat [1988]. The gelatine manufacturer,
Gelita, however, indicates [Gelita 2003] that gelling power does not significantly decrease
after several hours in 60 to 80 oC temperature.

There is some debate on whether a 10% or 20% gelatine is a better soft tissue simulant. One
of the arguments against 10% gelatine is that its specific weight is only 1.03 whereas that of
the 20% gelatine is 1.06 being closer to muscle tissue [Janzon 1997]. The latter figure is,
however, an approximation of the thigh muscle tissue of a living swine [Peters 1990a],
whereas an estimate for a human thigh is 1.02-1.04 [DeMuth 1966 see table 3].

Table 3: Specific gravity of human tissues [DeMuth 1966]

Tissue Specific gravity
Fat 0.8
Liver 1.01 – 1.02
Skin 1.09
Muscle 1.02 – 1.04
Lung 0.4 – 0.5
Bone 1.11

Usage temperature is important because it has a significant effect on retardation that the
simulant induces into the projectile. 10% gelatine at +4 oC will give approximately similar
bullet deceleration as muscle tissue of a 60-100 kg landrace pig [Fackler et al. 1984,
Yoganandan and Pintar 1997]. The benefits and drawbacks of both simulant types have been
extensively debated and even exaggerated. Some claims like that dissipated “down-track”
energy cannot be measured in gelatine [Coupland et al. 2000] are clearly unfounded. There
are 3 known methods for doing it. The “Crack Length Procedure” according to Knappworst
[Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994], the “Total Crack Length Method” [Ragsdale and Josselson
1988] and the “Wound Profile Method” [Fackler and Malinowski 1988]. The Knappworst
method is based on measuring the surface areas of the fissures and a better name for it would
be “Fissure Surface Area” –method. No information is available on how Knappworst
validated the method. [Knappworst personal communication 2003]. Deriving the kinetic
energy directly from the gelatine cracks can, however, be an unreliable method [Ragsdale and
Josselson 1988]. Ragsdale used 20% gelatine cooled to 4 oC. This kind of high concentration
together with low usage temperature will, however, make the gelatine behave in a

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Review of the literature 45

significantly different manner from 10% gelatine at the same temperature [Peters 1990]. The
results and conclusions can therefore be debated.

Several points speak strongly for the use of gelatine as a general purpose soft tissue simulant.

1) gelatine is translucent and the behaviour of the projectile or the exact placement of
bullet fragments are easily measured (see figure 10). With soap X-ray imaging is
needed.
2) soap is plastic and does not reproduce the pulsations of temporary cavity. The cavity
left in soap reflects temporary cavitation. Permanent cavity cannot be measured. In
principle, gelatine allows both, although this claim has been contested [Ragsdale and
Josselson 1988]. Ragsdale’s conclusions can also be contested because he used 20%
gelatine at the temperature of +4 oC, which makes the simulant far too hard and
insensitive as a measurement tool. If one looks at a photograph of a wound channel in
figure 10 one can see that it is not very easy to define the diameter of the permanent
cavity in gelatine either.
3) By varying the gelatine concentration and possibly utilizing air bubble entrapment one
can change the mechanical properties of the gelatine and thus, in theory, simulate
virtually any kind of soft tissue for wound ballistic research or forensic reconstruction.
This includes casting a brain simulant inside a synthetic skull [Thali et al. 2002]. It is
difficult, however not impossible [Thali et al. 2001] to use soap as supporting tissue to
examine injury of bones and vital organs, but gelatine is preferred [Lewis et al. 1982,
Amato et al. 1989, Missliwetz and Wieser 1986]. Soap is factory made and cannot be
prepared by the researcher to simulate different types of tissues. Table 2 shows an
example of the specific gravities of human tissues.

It should, however, be noted that isotropic materials like gelatine and soap fail to take into
account the heterogeneous nature of tissues and their different densities [Bartlett 2003].
Karger [1998] also found out that gelatine may not be the best simulant for testing the effects
of arrows.

4.5.2 Skin simulant

Skin simulant has not been widely used. Its significance seems to have been too easily
overlooked. Skin, however, increases the fidelity of measuring the effect of low or reduced
velocity projectiles like ricochets and is needed for forensic reconstruction of actual
shootings.

Schyma and Placidi (1977) used pig skin of unknown thickness and quality when
investigating the injury potential of ricocheting bullets. Thali et al. (2002) used a silicon cap
with synthetic fibers on a synthetic skull to simulate the collagen and fat of the scalp. Pigskin
was also used by MacPherson (1994) in an attempt to show that it is not needed in wound
ballistic research. Kneubuehl (2004) reported using lambhide when assessing the injury
potential of the FN 303 less lethal launcher.

4.5.3 Bone simulant

is available from at least one source, Synbone AG in Switzerland. It is available in various
forms. Kneubuehl and Thali [2003] report identical results as to loss of bullet velocity,
retained kinetic energy, bone fragmentation and wound channel compared to results with
46 Review of the literature

swine bones. In the tests performed at Police Technical Centre in Helsinki, Finland the
generic bone tubes give good, consistent results but leave some doubt about similarity with
human femur as it does not seem to produce quite similar longitudinal fractures [Jussila 2003,
unpublished data]. Therefore the bone injury classification [Robens and Küsswetter 1982]
might not be applicable. When casting synthetic bone tubes in gelatine care should be taken to
fill the medullar cavity as well to simulate the bone marrow.

Kneubuehl and Thali used only sharp pointed full jacket bullets of relatively high velocity
(710 – 830 m/s). Therefore the effect of different bullet shapes and velocities remains to be
investigated. Axial weight simulating the torso weight [Robens and Küsswetter 1982] was not
used. Therefore the study leaves some room for doubt as to the general applicability of the
results. Validation of synthetic bone with cadaveric human bones like femur is mandatory for
credibility.

4.5.4 Synthetic skulls

Dried Asiatic skulls filled with 20% gelatine were used by Watkins et al. [1985] to study
penetrating head wounds. The experiment setup included a pressure transducer to record the
internal pressure inside the skull.

Synthetic skulls and skull spheres are also available from Synbone. Very interesting wound
ballistic tests have been conducted by Thali [Thali et al. 2002]. These tests used a 10%
gelatine filled synthetic skull sphere with skin attached on its surface.

Similar tests were also conducted earlier at the Police Technical Centre in Helsinki, Finland in
an attempt to find a better simulation model for helmet testing. In these tests the skull was
mounted on a flexible “neck” with adjustable tension of the atlas vertebra (Figure 13). The
arrangement would allow the use of accelerometers and in the skull pressure sensor that
would give more information on ballistic impacts. Unfortunately this line of research was not
continued due to limited resources and more pressing work assignments.

Figure 13 : Police technical centre artificial

flexible atlas vertebra for mounting a skull for
helmet testing.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Review of the literature 47
48 Objectives of the study

5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Injury potential of a weapon in a broad sense encompasses not only the effects on a target
individual but also danger of injury for innocent bystanders and the police officer using force.
International Law demands that no unnecessary danger and unwarranted or superfluous injury
shall be caused to any counterpart of a firearm incident. Injury potential can therefore be
considered as a central issue when law enforcement firearms and ammunition are selected.
The general objective is to propose and justify a standard wound ballistic testing method
which could be used for assessing bulleted law enforcement firearms ammunition in order to
ascertain their legitimacy from the International Law perspective.

The general objective is further elaborated with in-depth research on wound ballistic
simulation with the following specific aims:

1. To review the international laws and agreements and interpret them into weapons
technical terms to establish a basis for injury potential assessment.
2. To propose a standard method for preparing ballistic tissue simulant of 10% hydrogel
solution of gelatine.
3. To establish a correlation between the amount of devitalised tissue and dissipated kinetic
energy
4. To complement the gelatine based tissue simulant with skin simulant to allow simulation
and assessment of bullet exit wounds and assessment of the injury potential of fragments
and ricochets.
5. To validate methods used for calculating the amount of dissipated kinetic energy from the
fissures formed into tissue simulant by the penetrating bullet.
6. To validate 10% gelatine as tissue simulant against wound ballistic test results obtained
with live pigs.
7. To present a mathematical model of describing a bullet’s injury potential in numerical
comparison figures.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Objectives of the study 49
50 Materials and methods

6 MATERIALS AND METHODS

6.1 Paper I - International law and law enforcement firearms

The key documents of International Law, agreements, declarations and recommendations
were analysed from relevant weapons technical and law enforcement tactical perspective.
These documents were:
• The St. Petersburg declaration (1868)
• The Conference of Brussels (1874)
• The Hague Convention (1899)
• The Hague Convention Respecting Laws and Customs of War on Land
(1907)
• United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
• The Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms (Rome 1950).
• The Protocol Additional to the UN Conventions of 12 August 1949,
relating to The Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts
(Protocol I), 8 June 1977, (Article 36)
• The UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (1979)
• The UN Resolution on Small-Calibre Weapon Systems (Geneva, 1979)
• The UN Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to be Excessively
Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (The Inhumane Weapons
Convention, [IWC] Geneva 1980
• The UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law
Enforcement Officials
• The Expert Meeting of the International Committee of the Red Cross
presented a Draft Protocol on Small Calibre Weapon Systems (1994).
• Article 8 (paragraph 2(b) subsection xix) of the Rome Statute of the
International Criminal Court (1999)

The legal division into documents concerning armed conflicts and law enforcement was
recognised. Since the borderline between the two realms is becoming ever more vague,
technical conclusions of weapons common to both were drawn. These conclusions lay the
legal basis for the assessment methodology proposed in this dissertation.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Materials and methods 51

6.2 Paper II – Preparing Ballistic Gelatine – Review and Proposal

for a Standard method
There is no internationally agreed standard ballistic soft tissue stimulant although a number of
simulants are being used. Standardisation is necessary in order to be able to compare wound
ballistic test results. This study reviewed the known gelatine preparation methods. Preparation
parameters like water temperature, water acidity within EC directive (pH 6.5 – 9.5) [European
Council 1998] for tap water and cooling time were varied to find out their effect on 10%
hydrogel solution of 250A bloom gelatine. The preparation process repeatability and the
resulting block homogeneity were measured by shooting 4.5 mm steel spheres and measuring
impact velocity and penetration depth with the gelatine at the temperature of +4 oC. The test
setup is shown in figure 14. The penetration results were used for estimating a regression
function which can be used for verifying the gelatine block characteristics prior to use. For
individual methods, please refer to the original publication (paper II).

Figure 14: Schematic of the testing setup. A – weapon, B – chronograph screens, C –

gelatine.

6.3 Paper III - Ballistic variables and tissue devitalisation in

penetrating injury – Establishing Relationship Through
Meta-analysis of a Number of Pig Tests
Ballistic soft tissue stimulant can be used for measurement of kinetic energy that a penetrating
bullet dissipates. In order to find out the correlation of various ballistic variables of the bullet
with the amount of injury caused, a number of tests [Berlin et al. 1977, Albreht et al. 1979,
52 Materials and methods

Tikka et al. 1982, Tikka et al. 1987, Kjellström et al. 2002] with live anesthetised pigs were
statistically analysed. The tests were either published in scientific literature or in official
reports and included a total of 38 calibre 5.56x45 mm, 5 calibre 7.92x57 mm, 24 calibre
7.62x51 mm, 48 calibre 7.62x39 mm, 16 calibre 9x19 mm bullets and 18 6 mm steel spheres
with 25, 1, 2, 2, 11 and 0 of them deforming during penetration. Of the bullets only the 9x19
mm bullets that deformed were constructed for controlled deformation. The total number of
individual shots was 140 consisting of rifle and pistol calibres. A summary of the primary
data is presented in table 4.

Table 4: A summary of the pig test primary data used for analysis.
pig
Reference weapon cal bullet mi m N vi Ei Ed tdeb lw mdeb mdeb/Ed

Albreht et al. [1] Yugoslav M48 7,92x57 FMJ 12,85 61,4 4 687,8 3039,5 642,0 6 205,0 123,8 0,19

Albreht et al. [1] Yugoslav M70 7,62x39 FMJ 8 61,7 8 663,2 1759,8 695,6 6 210,0 214,4 0,31

Albreht et al. [1] Colt M16A1 5,56x45 M193 **

NATO
Albreht et al. [1] FN FAL 7,62x51 FMJBT 9,56 71,2 4 810,5 3139,8 1719,0 6 222,5 527,5 0,31
67-
Berlin et al. [3] Colt M16A1 5,56x45 M193 FMJ 3,6 93 3 824,7 1220,3 212,3 1 107,7 103,3 0,49
Colt M16 mod 67-
Berlin et al. [3] 613 5,56x45 SS92 FMJ 3,6 93 10 855,4 1312,2 287,4 1 106,6 187,5 0,65
Husqvarna AK4 67-
Berlin et al. [3] (FN FAL) 7,62x51 Norma 9,5 93 9 731,8 2533,6 293,6 1 118,0 134,1 0,46
Russian 67-
Berlin et al. [3] Valmet M62 7,62x39 FMJ 8 93 14 631,4 1575,5 292,9 1 127,2 228,3 0,78
Kjellström et al. Norma SP
[15] Sig Sauer 9x19 FMJTC 8 52,4 5 368,8 544,5 128,1 1 79,8 24,5 0,19
Kjellström et al. MEN QD *
[15] Sig Sauer 9x19 MBHP 5,9 50,7 6 401,5 475,6 317,1 1 79,5 42,6 0,13
Kjellström et al. Speer GD *
[15] Sig Sauer 9x19 JHP 8 48,6 5 355,0 504,2 330,1 1 80,6 49,9 0,15
LapuaS309 20-
Tikka et al. [24] Valmet M62 7,62x39 FMJ 8 30 11 663,3 1766,1 142,3 6 95,6 35,2 0,25
20-
Tikka et al. [24] AKM 47 7,62x39 tsDpvth FMJ 8 30 13 661,0 1750,4 133,4 6 86,6 21,7 0,16
M193 **
Tikka et al. [24] Colt M16A1 5,56x45 FMJ
Tikka and 23-
Seeman [25] 6mm steel ball 0,86 39 18 1078,1 500,6 397,7 1 129,8 112,0 0,28

110
* controlled deformation bullet

** rejected due to fragmentation

Legend:
FMJ – full metal jacket
BT – boat tail
TC – truncated cone
MBHP – monoblock hollow point
(expanding)
JHP – jacketed hollow point (expanding

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Materials and methods 53

As controllably deforming bullets are often used by the police, an attempt to include
assessment of deformation energy was included. The current literature often incorrectly refers
to dissipated energy Ed being the difference of impact energy Ei and residual energy Er
ignoring the energy Edef used by the bullet for deformation.

The mass of devitalised tissue excised during debridement, mdeb was first made
commensurate taking into account the delay between wounding and surgical operation. In
some of the cases the pig hind legs had been deliberately contaminated with bacteria to study
the effect of delay. These infectious effects had also to be made commensurable to 1 h delay
level used in analysis. The amounts of excised tissue are based on subjective assessment of
the surgeon. This fact was considered to be part of the process and no commensuration was
attempted. The corrected mdeb values were correlated with Ed and a regression function was
derived.

Quantification of the kinetic energy Edef used by bullet deformation was attempted for
controllably deforming 9x19 mm Speer Gold Dot bullet by measuring the energy required to
compress it to the same residual length as when it is shot into 10% ballistic gelatine. For the
basic data sets please refer to the original publication (paper III).

6.4 Paper IV - Ballistic Skin Simulant

A simulated skin adds to the fidelity of forensic reconstructions of firearms injuries. As the
mechanical properties are different from those of muscle tissue it has a different threshold
velocity required for penetration. This is significant especially when assessing the injury
potential of projectiles that have already lost most of their kinetic energy in penetration or on
impact with a hard surface. Meaningful injury potential assessment of overpenetrating or
ricocheting bullets requires the use of validated stimulant for human skin.

The study reviewed literature on previous tests with human cadavers in order to establish
target mechanical properties for skin simulant. A number of reported attempts to establish
threshold velocity vth required for the penetration of human skin were reviewed. See table 5.
54 Materials and methods

Table 5: Reviewed studies on penetration threshold velocity of human skin.

Reported results Calculated results
Source Bullet d (mm) vth (m/s)mi (g) vol (mm3) a (mm2) mic (g) S (g/cm2)Eth (J)Eth/a
Journee in [7] .44 lead sphere 11,25 70 8,50 745,51 99,40 8,35 8,40 20,46 0,21
DiMaio et al. [7] diabolo pellet 4,40 101 0,53 15,21 0,53 3,52 2,73 0,18
DiMaio et al. [7] .22 diabolo pellet 5,46 75 1,07 23,41 1,07 4,57 3,01 0,13
DiMaio et al. [7] 38 LRN 9,12 58 7,32 65,33 7,32 11,21 12,32 0,19
Mattoo [9] 000 Buckshot 9,14 65 4,50 399,79 65,61 4,48 6,82 9,46 0,14
Missliwetz [4] 4,5 mm lead sphere 4,50 110,4 0,54 47,71 15,90 0,53 3,36 3,26 0,20
Missliwetz [4] 4,5 mm diabolo 4,50 135,6 0,49 15,90 0,49 3,08 4,50 0,28
Missliwetz [4] 4,5 mm spire point 4,50 109 0,56 15,90 0,56 3,52 3,33 0,21
Missliwetz [4] 4,5 mm hollow point 4,50 133,2 0,44 15,90 0,44 2,77 3,90 0,25
Missliwetz [4] 4 mm brass sphere 4,00 120,6 0,31 0,03 12,57 0,31 2,47 2,25 0,18
Missliwetz [4] 4 mm steel sphere 4,00 126,1 0,26 33,51 12,57 0,26 2,11 2,10 0,17
Tausch et al. [10] lead sphere 9,00 68,7 5,30 381,70 63,62 4,28 6,72 10,09 0,16
Tausch et al. [10] Lead round nose 9,00 66,2 6,20 63,62 6,20 9,75 13,59 0,21
Tausch et al. [10] Lead round nose 9,00 41,8 10,60 63,62 10,60 16,66 9,26 0,15
Tausch et al. [10] Truncated cone 9,00 54,5 7,90 63,62 7,90 12,42 11,73 0,18
Tausch et al. [10] Spire point 9,00 57,9 7,90 63,62 7,90 12,42 13,24 0,21
Tausch et al. [10] .45 lead sphere 11,46 56,7 9,00 788,05 103,15 8,83 8,56 14,19 0,14
Tausch et al. [10] .45 lead round nose 11,46 37 11,70 103,15 11,70 11,34 8,01 0,08
Tausch et al. [10] 4 mm lead sphere 4,00 68,7 0,47 33,51 12,57 0,38 2,99 0,89 0,07

Legend: d = bullet diameter, vth = reported threshold velocity, mi = reported bullet mass, vol =
spherical bullet volume, a = cross-sectional area, mic = corrected bullet mass, S = sectional density,
Eth = threshold energy

Note: Figures in bold have been corrected from the original publication. The reference bullet used in
this article is inside a frame. Bullet "lead" alloy density = 11,2 g/cm3 . Steel density = 7,9 g/cm3. The
number after the researcher is the literature reference used in the original paper.

Four synthetic materials and eight natural leathers were subjected to tensile and shooting tests.
They are listed in table 6 below. The candidate S8b was excluded because the humidity could
not be maintained during the tensile tests.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Materials and methods 55

Table 6: Skin simulant candidates

Thickness
No. Simulant candidate
(mm)
R1 Trelleborg SBR2533 nitrile rubber. 2

R2 Trelleborg NR2645 natural rubber 2

R21 Trelleborg NR2645 natural rubber 1

R3 Teknikum 662830 chlorosulfonated rubber 2

Moose hide, chrome tanned and through dyed. Light
S1 1.3-1.5
pigmentation finish
Moose hide, chrome tanned and through dyed aniline
S2 2.0-2.2
leather
cowhide, chrome tanned and through dyed. Light
S3 1.2-1.4
pigmentation finish
cowhide, semi-finished upholstery “crust”, chrome tanned
S4 0.9-1.1
and through dyed. Surface ground
cowhide, semi-finished upholstery “crust”, chrome tanned
S5 0.9-1.1
and through dyed. Surface not ground
cowhide, finished upholstery leather, chrome tanned and
S6 0.9-1.1
through dyed aniline leather.
cowhide, semi-finished chrome tanned upholstery ”crust”.
S7 0.9-1.1
Not treated to final softness
S8 chrome tanned pig hide 1.41

S8b as S8, but conditioned in climate chamber to Rh 70%

The material candidate thicknesses were measured using a Mitutoyo No. 293-805 digital
micrometer with 5-10 N measuring force. Skin samples S1 - S8 were subjected to separate
tensile testing. Five test specimens were cut using a dumbbell shaped specimen cutter. The
resulting specimens were 75 mm long with 4 mm wide and 25 mm long thin section. Two of
the five specimens were cut at 90o angle to the remaining three to compensate for the possible
effect of directional orientation of collagen fibers and Langer lines [Edwards and Marks 1995,
Bader and Bowker 1983]. The testing temperature was +23 oC and relative humidity 28 %.
The tensile test was done using an Instron 4204 material tester with 1 kN load cell. The
crosshead speed was 50 mm/min and the initial distance 50 mm. Data acquisition rate was
6.667 points per second. The testing method designed to be as close to that of Vogel (1987) as
feasible [Vogel 2004 personal communication].

The shooting test was a partial repetition of an earlier test with human cadavers [Missliwetz
1987] using 4.5 mm lead spheres shot with an air rifle from the distance of 5 m. The simulant
candidates were attached on the surface of a 10% gelatine block using PVC-LMF film
(kitchen wrap) of 11 µm thickness and 1.25 g/cm3 density. The projectile velocity was
measured at 2.5 m and adjusted with deceleration to obtain the impact velocity. The purpose
of the test was to find a regression function to indicate the theoretical threshold velocity vth
required for penetration.
56 Materials and methods

6.5 Paper V - Measurement of Kinetic Energy Dissipation with

Gelatine Fissure Formation with Special Reference to
Gelatine Validation
There are three distinctive methods for calculating the dissipated kinetic energy Ed from the
fissures formed in ballistic gelatine.

The Fissure Surface Area (FSA) method by Knappworst [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994 pp
192-194] suggests that

[17] Σri = c * (E’tr)i

, where Σri represents the sum of all crack lengths at a certain cross-section of the gelatine
block. C is a constant and E’tr is the kinetic energy the projectile dissipated into the section i
of the block. Thus, the sum of all lengths of all cracks in section i is claimed to be
proportional to the energy dissipated into that section.

For a bullet channel of length lw the energy ratio number REFSA can thus be estimated as:

[18] REFSA = ΣREi

, where REi is the ratio number for a section i and

[19] REi = Σr1i* lwi + (|Σr1i – Σr2i|*lwi/2)

,where r1and r2 are the Σr for impact and exit sides of the section respectively.

The Total Crack Length Method (TCLM) [Ragsdale and Josselson 1988] estimates
temporary cavity size from the fissures assuming that the fissures have been formed as
sections of the circumference of the maximum expansion, i.e. temporary cavity of the bullet
channel. Therefore the radius of the temporary cavity is:

[20] rtc = Σr / (2 * π)

and RETCLM can be expressed as the sum (Eq. 18) of all volumes of temporary cavity of the
section:

[21] REi = π * lw * (r1tc2 + r1tc * r2tc + r2tc2) / 3

The Wound Profile Method (WPM) [Fackler and Malinowski 1985] takes two largest cracks
and adds their lengths rmax1 and rmax2 together to produce an estimate of the temporary cavity
diameter. We thus obtain:

[22] rtc = (rmax1 + rmax2 ) / 2

and the REWPM as in Eq. 21 above.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Materials and methods 57

The primary purpose of the study was to find out which method would give the best
correlation with the actual measured Ed. Non-deforming bullets in calibres 9x19 mm and
7.62x39 mm were shot into ballistic gelatine measuring impact and residual velocities. In
order not to waste energy on the possible impact caused motion of a gelatine block the block
was tied to place using a “shroud” made of elastic cloth. The shroud also simulated the
cavitation suppressing effect of surrounding tissue. After shooting the gelatine blocks were
cut into 50 mm sections and the fissures measured using all three methods. The obtained
comparison figures were correlated with the measured values of Ed.

The secondary purpose of the study was to validate the velocity retardations with the
corresponding values from the pig tests in paper III. Previous validations of ballistic gelatine
found in literature are of somewhat dubious nature due to the fact that the gelatine preparation
and verification process is inadequately described and most of the validations were done using
steel spheres at very narrow velocity distribution.

The test setup is shown in figure 15.

Figure 15 Testing arrangement. A – weapon, B – impact velocity measurement, C –

gelatine, D – residual velocity measurement and E – backstop of cellulose wadding

6.6 Statistical methods

6.6.1 Paper II
Variable Lp/Vi (penetration in mm divided by impact velocity in m/s) was calculated for
every shot.
Significance of difference of means was tested with Mann-Whitney test for independent
samples with 95% confidence level using SPSS statistical analysis software.
58 Materials and methods

In addition the process reproducibility was analysed as follows:

- difference between impact directions (homogeneity of block) with Kruskal-
Wallis test
- normalised regression function for pellet penetration Lp and correlation
coefficient were estimated using the least square method
- standard error was calculated
- estimate for minimum and maximum acceptable Lp was established

Note: As the naming convention has evolved during the research, there are slight differences
between the original papers and the naming convention presented in chapter 2. For example
Lp/Vi
is the same as lw/vi in chapter 2.

6.6.2 Paper III

Microsoft Excel 2000 version 9.0.3821 SR-1 was used for statistical analysis. Mean values
and standard deviations were calculated. Mean values were compared with two-tailed t-test
using 95% level of confidence.

Frequency distributions were formed by grouping the observations of debrided tissue (mdebc)
into classes according to both energy dissipated per unit length of wound channel (Ed/lw) and
energy dissipated per unit penetration time (ballistic event) (Ed/tbe). The latter was
considered important in order to see the effect the event speed i.e. projectile velocity has on
tissue devitalisation. The class widths were arbitrarily chosen in order to obtain classes
having at least 4 observations. True mean and standard deviation were calculated for each
class.

Pearson correlations between mdeb and various ballistic variables were calculated.

Regression functions were estimated for all observations included in the analysis using the
least square method. The functions were not adjusted to intersect with (0,0) since even in the
theoretical case of a bullet not expending any energy into tissue it still crushes a hole
(permanent cavity) thereby destroying tissue. Function type was selected by maximising
correlation coefficient with the assumption that the curve must be rising. The functions are
shown in figures 1 and 2.

In order to determine the energy expended on deformation regression functions on mdebc per
total dissipated energy Ed were estimated for both non-deformed and deformed bullets.

6.6.3 Paper IV
Microsoft Excel 2000 version 9.0.3821 SR-1 was used for statistical analysis. Mean values
and standard deviations were calculated. Regression functions were estimated for all skin
samples included in the analysis using the least square method. The Pearson correlations for
various proposed skin penetration functions were calculated. The goodness of fit was
compared calculating the Χ2 (Chi-square) –values.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Materials and methods 59

6.6.4 Paper V
Microsoft Excel 2000 version 9.0.3821 SR-1 was used for statistical analysis. Mean values
and standard deviations were calculated. Pearson correlations were calculated for the
comparison of kinetic energy estimation methods. The z-test at 95% level of confidence was
used to verify the significance of difference between impact velocity normalized bullet
decelerations.
60 Results

7 RESULTS

7.1 Paper I – International law and law enforcement firearms

If the international Law is interpreted from the human rights perspective and ratio legis, it
needs no changes although the weapons technical wording may be obsolete. This is especially
important as technical restrictions on weapons may be easily circumvented using another
technical solution.

The need to protect bystanders and the police officer in addition to the offender from
unwarranted danger and injury requires ratio legis interpretation and sanctions the use of
expanding controlled penetration bullets.

A number of technical interpretations of the International Law and recommendations are

presented as the basis for assessing the legitimacy of firearm and ammunition types from the
injury potential point of view:

• To avoid superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering to the offender

o There must be a maximum for acceptable kinetic energy
dissipation for the first 250 mm of penetration in defined tests
with accepted synthetic material, for example, gelatine validated
to simulate muscle tissue.
o There must be a maximum for an acceptable viscous criterion of
non-penetrating kinetic impact projectiles (baton projectiles) in
defined tests.
o There must be a maximum value for acceptable fragmentation in
defined tests (including kinetic impact projectiles).
o There must be a maximum for acceptable ‘crookedness’ of the
permanent wound channel in defined tests.
o No fragmentation bullets shall be used directly against persons.
o No explosive bullets shall be used directly against persons.
o No incendiary bullets shall be used directly against persons.
o Projectiles used directly against persons shall not contain X-ray-
undetectable components.

• To avoid unwarranted risk and injury to uninvolved persons and other officials.
o Both the weapon and the ammunition must function reliably as a
combination in defined conditions.
o Ammunition performance must be consistent; in particular,
penetration, permanent and temporary cavity formation must be
consistent in defined tests.
o Accuracy and selectivity of weapon and ammunition must
provide for a sufficient tactical range and accuracy in various
defined conditions.
o Penetration ability of the standard issue projectile must be
controlled with minimum and maximum tissue simulant

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Results 61

penetration in defined tests with a defined maximum for

acceptable residual kinetic energy after penetration of 250mm of
simulated tissue.
o A personal side-arm standard issue projectile should not
penetrate the body armour worn by the official.
o Special circumstances may warrant the use of bullets with higher
penetration ability.
o There must be a maximum for acceptable ricochet deflection
angle from standardised surfaces and a maximum for acceptable
kinetic energy of the heaviest fragment.
o Functional safety of the weapon must be proven by a) standard
test set and b) any necessary weapon specific tests.
o Visual and tactile markings shall be provided to assist in
identification of various types of ammunition under adverse light
and weather conditions.
o For ease of use under stress, the weapon should not require the
performance of any fine motor functions in a tactical situation
except for loading the magazine and pressing the trigger.

• To increase availability, multi-purpose systems should be available.

• To increase proficiency, the weapon systems should handle with reasonable similarity.
• To increase accountability, it should be possible to trace the bullet back to the weapon
that fired it and as a matter of principle, all firearms should be assigned to named officials.
• Exceptional and grave circumstances may justify deviation from the above
recommendations.

7.2 Paper II – Preparing Ballistic Gelatine – Review and Proposal

for a Standard method
The study indicated that homogenous consistent quality ballistic gelatine is easy to prepare.
Water temperature had far smaller significance than previously thought. Water acidity
variation within the European Council directive recommended limits did not have any
measurable effect.

A regression function for the penetration of a 4.5 mm steel sphere was established:

[23] lw = 0.594 * vi – 21.92 ± 5

, where lw is penetration (mm) and vi impact velocity (m/s). This function is presented also in
figure 16 below. A standard preparation method of 10% ballistic gelatine was proposed. For
more detailed results, please refer to the original publication (paper II).
62 Results

Normalised gelatine penetration

y = 0.594 * vi - 21.92 +/- 5
100
4,5 mm steel BB penetration lw

90

80
min
(mm)

70 med
max
60

50

40
90 140 190
Impact velocity vi (m/s)

Figure 16: Graphic representation of the gelatine penetration function

This regression function can be used to verify that the gelatine block meets the set
requirements for penetration resistance.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Results 63

7.3 Paper III - Ballistic variables and tissue devitalisation in

penetrating injury – Establishing Relationship Through
Meta-analysis of a Number of Pig Tests
The primary data from the experiments was made commensurate. The result is shown in table
7.

Table 7: Commensurate amounts of devitalised (debrided) tissue and their correlations with kinetic energy
dissipations.

calculated mean mdebc

values correlations …
with with with
Reference cal bullet N vr mdebc mdebc/Ed tbe Ed/tbe Ed/lw Ed Ed/tbe Ed/lw

Albreht et al. [1] 7,92x57 FMJ 4 610,5 87,9 0,14 6,3 100,7 3,1 0,74 0,66 0,67

Albreht et al. [1] 7,62x39 FMJ 8 514,2 152,2 0,22 7,1 99,7 3,4 0,25 -0,32 -0,27

Albreht et al. [1] 7,62x51 NATO 4 520,5 374,5 0,22 6,9 239,6 7,5 0,05 -0,09 -0,12

Berlin et al. [3] 5,56x45 M193 3 747,9 103,3 0,49 2,7 75,6 1,9 1,00 1,00 1,00

Berlin et al. [3] 5,56x45 SS92 10 751,4 187,5 0,65 2,7 101,9 2,6 0,61 0,49 0,47

Berlin et al. [3] 7,62x51 Norma 9 686,4 134,1 0,46 3,3 88,6 2,5 -0,25 -0,54 -0,53

Berlin et al. [3] 7,62x39 Russian 14 555,0 228,3 0,78 4,5 52,4 1,9 0,88 0,85 0,84

Kjellström et al. [15] 9x19 Norma SP 5 322,6 24,5 0,19 4,6 27,7 1,6 0,91 0,89 0,86

Kjellström et al. [15] 9x19 MEN QD * 6 231,2 42,6 0,13 5,0 63,6 4,0 0,67 -0,05 0,11

Kjellström et al. [15] 9x19 Speer GD * 5 208,4 49,9 0,15 5,7 58,6 4,2 0,10 0,10 0,12

Tikka et al. [24] 7,62x39 LapuaS309 11 636,0 25,0 0,18 3,0 50,3 1,5 0,18 -0,43 -0,33

Tikka et al. [24] 7,62x39 tsDpvth 13 635,3 15,4 0,12 2,7 51,7 1,6 -0,16 -0,63 -0,64

Tikka and Seeman [25] 6mm steel ball 18 485,5 112,0 0,28 3,3 121,5 3,1 0,45 0,38 0,37

Legend: N – number of observations, vr – residual velocity (m/s), mdebc – commensurate mass of

devitalised tissue (g), Ed – dissipated kinetic energy (J), tbe – duration of penetration (ms), lw – length
of wound channel (mm)

The relationship between dissipated energy Ed for unit length of wound channel and
devitalised tissue mdeb was presented as a regression function:

[24] mdeb = 44.575 * Ed + 10.319 with R2 = 0.293 (R = 0.54)

The relationship is presented also in figure 17.

64 Results

Distribution of debrided tissue (commensurate) by dissipated

energy per unit length of wound channel for non-deformed bullets

900
y = 44,575x + 10,319
800
R2 = 0,293
700
600
mdebc (g)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 12,00 14,00
Ed/lw (J/mm)

Figure 17: Equation 24 presented in graphic form

The regression function for excised tissue normalised with the speed of energy dissipation
gave a lower correlation than Eq. 24 above.

Distribution of debrided tissue (com m ensurate) by velocity

of energy dissipation for non-deform ed bullets

900
y = 1,2311x + 18,394
800

700
R2 = 0,2258
600
mdebc (g)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0,00 50,00 100,00 150,00 200,00 250,00 300,00 350,00

Ed/tbe (J/m s)

Figure 18: Distribution of the amount of excised tissue by the kinetic energy dissipation
normalised with the duration of the event

It was also found out that if very small pigs are used the correlation coefficient is almost 0.
This leads to the conclusion that animal tests should use over 50 kg pigs if the ballistic effects
are to be studied.

The attempt to quantify deformation energy Edef did not lead into any conclusive results. The
method of quantification by measuring the energy required to compress the bullets to the

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Results 65

same residual length as after shooting into ballistic gelatine remains as the only available and
logical one for the time being.

The correlation between Ed and mdeb was proved. Table 8 presents calculated correlations
with various ballistic variables and shows that no other ballistic variable correlates very well
with tissue destruction. Some debate can be found in literature on whether and how well the
kinetic energy dissipated into tissue correlates with the amount of devitalised tissue [Fackler
1986]. One argument is that since subjective assessment is involved the previous knowledge
on presumed kinetic energy of the bullet may affect the surgeon’s judgment. Paper III,
however, indicates that kinetic energy dissipation per millimetre of wound channel is the best
indicator.

Table 8: Correlations of devitalised tissue (mdeb) with various ballistic variables.

Ballistic variable R
impact velocity vi 0,11
impact momentum = mi*vi 0,09
impact kinetic energy = 0.5*mi*vi2 0,16
impact power = mi*vi3 0,23
dissipated kinetic energy per mm of wound channel 0,54
as above but per ms of penetration 0,48
66 Results

7.4 Paper IV - Ballistic Skin Simulant

The analysis of threshold velocity equations and experimental data showed that the equation
of Mattoo, Eq. 9, gives the best fit with experimental data with Chi-square value of 47.21.
This is also shown in figure 19.

Threshold velocity of human skin

160
Sellier (1)
140
Sperrazza (2)
120 3 Tausch (3)
Mattoo (4)
vth (m/s)

100 4
Observ.
80
1
60
2
40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2
Projectile sectional density (g/cm )

Figure 19: Comparison of various proposed equations for threshold velocity with the
observations in table 4.

The tests showed that the simulant with mechanical properties closest to those of frontal chest
skin of a 30 year old male was sample no. 7, the semi-finished chrome tanned upholstery
“crust” cowhide of 0.9-1.1 mm thickness. Its threshold velocity vth = 90.7 m/s, tensile
strength 20.89 ± 4.11 MPa and elongation at break 61 ± 9 %. The corresponding values for
the target human were estimated to be vth = 94 ± 4 m/s with a 4.5 mm lead sphere, tensile
strength 18 ± 2 MPa and elongation at break 65 ± 5 %. The individual test results are shown
in table 9.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Results 67

Table 9: Skin simulant candidates and test results

Sample Material Nominal Measured Density Hardness Threshold Tensile Maximum
no. Thickness thickness (g/cm3) (ShA) velocity strength elongation
(mm) (mm) vth (m/s) (Mpa) (%)
Trelleborg
1,94 ±
R1 SBR2533 nitrile 2 1,25 50+/-5 * 92.4 5,0 * 350 *
0.01
rubber.
Trelleborg NR2645 1,88 ±
R2 2 1,02 40+/-5 * 98.4 17 * 600 *
natural rubber 0.04
Trelleborg NR2645 1,0 ±
R21 1 1,04 40+/-5 * 82.9 17 * 600 *
natural rubber 0,02
Teknikum 662830
2,10 ± 10.9 ±
R3 chlorosulfonated 2 1,77 51 * 137.3 723 ± 6 *
0.03 0.11 *
rubber
Moose hide, chrome
tanned and through 26.39 ±
S1 1.3-1.5 1.2 ± 0.09 0,59 48.8 82 ± 8
dyed. Light 9.28
pigmentation finish
Moose hide, chrome
1,72 ± test 11.92 ±
S2 tanned and through 2.0-2.2 0,60 84 ± 11
0,05 aborted 1.54
dyed aniline leather
cowhide, chrome
tanned and through 1.23 ± 15.47 ±
S3 1.2-1.4 0,64 103.4 50 ± 3
dyed. Light 0.11 3.06
pigmentation finish
cowhide, semi-
finished upholstery
“crust”, chrome 0.85 ± 14.75 ±
S4 0.9-1.1 0,60 90.3 50 ± 13
tanned and through 0.07 4.59
dyed. Surface
ground
cowhide, semi-
finished upholstery
“crust”, chrome 0.97 ± 14.16 ±
S5 0.9-1.1 0,56 78.2 61 ± 12
tanned and through 0.12 2.62
dyed. Surface not
ground
cowhide, finished
upholstery leather,
0.98 ± 14.18 ±
S6 chrome tanned and 0.9-1.1 0,65 96.0 65 ± 7
0.03 5.64
through dyed aniline
leather.
cowhide, semi-
finished chrome
0.92 ± 20.89 ±
S7 tanned upholstery 0.9-1.1 0,56 90.7 61 ± 9
0.03 4.11
”crust”. Not treated
to final softness
chrome tanned pig 1.25 ± 14.27 ±
S8 1.41 0,62 116.1 51 ± 11
hide 0.07 3.62
as S8, but
conditioned in
S8b 135.4 † †
climate chamber to
Rh 70%

* values announced by the manufacturer

† not measured. Conditioning could not be maintained for tensile testing
68 Results

The fact that the chosen simulant is a natural product will introduce some error which can be
considered acceptable. No synthetic material matching the mechanical properties of human
skin was found.

Sample R21, the 1 mm thick natural rubber showed similar threshold velocity, but leaves
some doubt since the elongation at break and tensile strength values differ greatly from those
of human skin.

Simulant R21 and S7 penetrations by a 4.5 mm

lead sphere

90
80
R21: y = 1,3188x - 109,32
70
penetration lw (mm)

2
R = 0,9882
60
S7: y = 1,3939x - 126,37
50 2
R = 0,774 S7
40
R21
30 Lin. (S7)
20 Lin. (R21)
10
0
50 70 90 110 130 150 170
impact velocity vi (m/s)

Figure 20: Regression functions for human skin simulant threshold velocity

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Results 69

7.5 Paper V - Measurement of Kinetic Energy Dissipation with

Gelatine Fissure Formation with Special Reference to
Gelatine Validation
The Wound Profile Method (WPM) [Fackler and Malinowski 1985] measuring only the two
longest fissures per a cross section of gelatine was found to give the best correlation of 0.89
with the measured amounts of dissipated kinetic energy. The Fissure Surface Area (FSA)
(Knappworst-method) [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994] and Total Crack Length methods
(TCLM) [Ragsdale and Josselson 1988] gained 0.51 and 0.52 respectively.

The experimental results were also compared with those from pig tests with the same 9x19
mm Norma and 7.62x39 mm full jacket bullet types. This comparison is shown in figures
21and 22 below.

impact velocity normalized deceleration of

9x19 mm Norma bullet

0,0025

0,002

0,0015 pigs/Kjellström
∆v/lw

0,001 10% gelatin

0,0005

0
340 350 360 370 380 390
vi (m/s)

Figure 21: Deceleration comparison of the 9x19 mm Norma bullet

70 Results

impact velocity normalized deceleration of

7.62x39 mm FMJ bullet

0,0035
0,003
0,0025
pigs/Albreht
0,002
∆v/lw

10% gelatin
0,0015
pigs/Berlin
0,001
0,0005
0
600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740
vi (m/s)

Figure 22: Deceleration comparison of the 7.62x39 mm FMJ bullet

Using the z-test at 95% level of confidence no difference between impact velocity normalized
bullet decelerations could be determined for the 9 mm bullet used. The same test showed
significant difference for 7.62 mm bullets. That, however, can be hypothesized to be the result
of the bullet’s tendency to tumble in non-homogenous living tissue causing significant
dispersion of observed deceleration values. The results add further evidence supporting the
validity of 10% gelatine at +4 oC as wound ballistic tissue simulant and validate the use of the
elastic shroud.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Results 71
72 Discussion

8 DISCUSSION

The significance of this study is in laying a justified basis for valid comparison of law
enforcement ammunition injury potential. What is needed and accomplished is a weapons
technical interpretation of the international law to set a yardstick for wound ballistic
assessment, a standard preparation and validation method of a standard soft tissue simulant, a
validated skin simulant and a standard method for measuring and estimating the amount of
devitalised tissue. None of these have been available so far.

In a review of the scientific literature, there is very little coherence and coordination between
theoretical and medical research of wound ballistics. The results of one field are very rarely
cross-verified.

8.1 Firearms and ballistics

The firearms are continuously being made more sophisticated although very few really new
inventions have been made during the past decades. Internal, intermediate and external
ballistics are very well covered by established laws of physics.

One area of development in the realm of intermediate ballistics, however, requires some
attention. When the bullet exits the barrel an ear damaging loud bang can be heard and the
high-pressure gases cause the bullet to yaw [Moss et al. 1995]. Considering that the distances
in law enforcement operations may be rather short and that an unstable bullet may be more
prone to disintegrate and cause unnecessary injuries and perform in an inconsistent manner,
the bullet should be reasonably stable at already a few metres away from the muzzle of the
gun. It can be hypothesised, that controlling the exit gases would be the means towards
greater bullet stability. The mechanisms that may be used are a muzzle brake, muzzle flash
extinguisher and a sound suppressor [Moss et al. 1995]. The latter is beneficial also from the
occupational health point of view as it reduces the loud bang [Kyttälä and Pääkkönen 1996,
Toivonen 2004] which is harmful to ears especially in an operational situation where no
hearing protection can be used.

As an effective sound suppressor tends to be rather long and heavy [Kyttälä and Pääkkönen
1996, Toivonen 2004] and therefore rather awkward in police operations more research is
required in order to find better technical solutions that stabilise the bullet and reduce the
muzzle bang to a more tolerable level.

From the wound ballistician’s point of view the information offered by ammunition
manufacturers is sadly lacking [Nennstiel 1996 and 2004]. Even ballistic coefficients are
sometimes difficult to get and some doubt is unavoidable as to the reliability of the figures
given. Axial and transversal moments would be required to analyse the bullet’s stability in
various conditions, but are even more rarely available. The international organisations doing
evaluation of the ammunition should insist on availability of a detailed ammunition data sheet
with verified design parameters.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Discussion 73

Most of the current military bullets have been designed to fly stably. Little attention seems to
have been paid upon wound ballistic stability. Yet both design objectives can be achieved and
are in no conflict. Using the heavier metals in the front and lighter metals to fill the rear end
of the bullet, the centre of gravity can be moved ahead of the point of pressure creating a
penetration stable bullet. Combining this construction with expansion would also make the
bullet to have the controlled penetration desirable for law enforcement operations. Law
enforcement bullet design, especially in rifle calibres, requires more research.

8.2 The International Law

Although the International Law [UN 1977] requires establishment of a review system to
ensure the compliance of only a new military weapon with the law, it would be slightly
extreme to say that the same does not apply to law enforcement. This view is strongly
supported also by the United Nations Basic Principles of Use of Force and Firearms by Law
Enforcement Officials [UN 1990]. Although legally only a recommendation [de Rover 1998],
it repeats the prohibition to use firearms and ammunition that cause superfluous injury.
Furthermore, it recommends that the law enforcement officials be trained on the effects of the
weapons they use.

The essential principles of use of force are those of legality, necessity and proportionality [de
Rover 1998]. The proportionality to the prevailing threat binds the assessment of legitimacy
partially with the incident and means that legitimacy of a weapon cannot entirely be
determined beforehand and out of the context of the incident. Grave and exceptional
circumstances may also necessitate the use of exceptional means that in the particular case
can be considered to be in acceptable proportion to the prevailing threat.

Looking at the injury potential from the perspective of the primary target person and ignoring
the bystanders and the law enforcement official would reveal only a part of the picture.
Looking only at wound ballistics would in the same way address only a part of the problem. If
unwarranted injuries are to be avoided the accident susceptibility of both the firearm and the
ammunition designs has also to be assessed [Jussila 2003].

In view of the continuous development of weapons technology the only sensible way to
interpret the International Law is by ratio legis i.e. not by what the law says but by what it
means. Considering the need to protect non-involved bystanders from harm the law seems to
accept the use of controllably expanding bullets in law enforcement operations [Paper I]. This,
however, introduces another problem and many new questions. What can be considered law
enforcement? Where can the borderline between law enforcement and military operations be
drawn? Is the safety of the non-involved less important in military operations? Should
expanding controlled penetration bullets be sanctioned also for certain military operations?
Considering that no accepted, comprehensive and validated standard exist for the assessment
of the injury potential, is there any proof of substantial power of evidence that the current
accepted military bullets really are less injurious even to the primary target than well designed
expanding bullets? This is a case not proven and requires more research.
74 Discussion

8.3 Penetrating projectile induced injury

The wounding effect of a penetrating bullet depends on the location of the hit and the track of
the bullet in a human body. The wounding potential should not be confused with
incapacitation potential and depends on the bullet’s capability to penetrate and transfer energy
to the tissues. To bring the concept of wounding to a measurable level it might be better to
speak about unrecoverable injury and non-viable tissue.

There seems to be little doubt about the relationship between dissipated kinetic energy and
tissue devitalisation [Berlin et al. 1976 and 1979, Janzon and Seeman 1985, Janzon 1988,
Tikka 1989, Janzon 2004, paper III]. There is, however, little information about the effect of
an acoustic wave on the nervous system. A well planned research effort should be done to
measure the properties of acoustic waves produced by different types of bullets and to verify
their immediate and delayed effects on the nervous system. This could maybe lead to
complementing the simulant system with acoustic sensors and pressure transducers.

A unanimous view exists on the increased injury caused by bullet fragmentation (see 4.3.2).
The surgeon must weigh the possibilities of removing a fragment against the hazards of
leaving it in place. The problems may also appear many years later if a fragment is carried by
blood circulation into a vital organ [Mattox et al. 1979, Fackler et al. 1984, Braun 2003,
Corbett et al. 2003]. There is, however, no proposed method of quantifying the injury
increase. Even though the animal tests analysed in paper III stated that a number of the bullets
deformed and fragmented during penetration, no information on the degree of fragmentation
and deformation was recorded. Therefore, it was impossible to draw any conclusions in this
respect. As many bullets will fragment during penetration of tissues quantification is
necessary if injury potential is to be assessed. As the mass of the fragments can be measured
as the difference of impact and retained masses of the bullet and the impact velocity is known
the kinetic energy possessed by the fragments Efr can be calculated to some degree of
accuracy. Considering the added injury induced a coefficient of fragmentation cfr is used to
multiply Efr. An arbitrary value of cfr = 2 is proposed. Further research is needed to reach a
better estimate of increased injury induced by bullet fragmentation.

Fragmentation can also be designed into the bullet to reduce the amount of residual energy. If
part of the bullet remains in the target and the rest exits in several fragments the danger to
bystanders is reduced because deformed fragments have less mass, high drag and lose their
velocity and energy fairly rapidly. This design principle can, however, be interpreted as a
violation of the maux superflus –principle and is not easily acceptable [Leppäniemi 2004
personal communication, Janzon 2004 personal communication]. As use of firearm by a law
enforcement official may require shooting through an intermediate barrier like a window, a
bullet prone to fragment will introduce the possibility of inconsistent performance and
unexpected results. Considering the injury mechanism and the hazards involved it may,
however, be recommended that law enforcement bullets should not show any significant
fragmentation [Paper I].

The exiting bullet makes an exit wound which is usually larger than the entry wound as the
bullet has already deformed or may be in an unstable state exiting base or side first. The result
will in many cases be a star like rupture [Janzon 1983, Janzon 1997]. The difference between
entry and exit wounds can also be hypothesized with different penetration mechanism. In an
entry wound the projectile presses the skin against subcutaneous tissue thus reducing the

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Discussion 75

stretch whereas on exit the skin is stretched outwards from the supporting tissue thus
increasing the stretch. As the wound must anyway be opened (debrided) for tissue excision
and the skin injuries can relatively easily be corrected [Leppäniemi 2004 personal
communication], the entry and exit wound sizes as markers for wound severity cannot be held
very significant. A large exit wound should, however, be treated as a warning sign for
possible extensive internal injury [Janzon 1997].

In order to cause only the justified injuries the bullet must be inherently accurate and have a
satisfactory tactical range. Inherent accuracy means that when the service weapon is mounted
on a machine rest, the bullets of the ammunition being evaluated must hit very close to each
other at a given range. When mounting a weapon on a machine rest for measurement of the
inherent accuracy, care should be taken not to distort the barrel oscillation (see 4.1.2).
Tactical range is defined as the range where the bullet flies within ± 2.5 cm of the line of sight
(line of aim) in defined weather conditions [Jussila 2001c]. This allows the shooter to
concentrate on the task at hand and expect the bullet to hit at the point of aim within that
range without the need to waste intellectual resources on pondering about the trajectory of the
bullet.

A police officer using a firearm must know what it will do and what not [UN 1990]. As a
corollary the bullet must perform consistently in various foreseeable circumstances. A law
enforcement bullet must therefore have sufficient tactical range and kinetic energy, yet avoid
excessive injuries and especially danger to bystanders.

Increasing bullet velocity gives a longer tactical range. It will also increase kinetic energy. If
most of the energy is not dissipated into the target or deformation of the bullet, the result is
increased danger of injury to bystanders due to excessive penetration and high residual
velocity and energy of the exiting bullet. If most of the energy is dissipated into the target
person the result will very often be increased injury [paper III]. If the bullet velocity is
reduced the tactical range shortens and the bullet may not perform consistently. This may in
turn prolong the gunfight and significantly increase the danger to both bystanders and law
enforcement officials.

A bullet that completely penetrates or misses the target will eventually hit something and
possibly deflect from the impact surface becoming a ricochet. An indirect danger of injury to
bystanders is induced by a ricochet. Assessment of the danger must take into account the fact
that a ricochet is usually deformed by the impact and in a ballistically unstable state flying
into an unexpected direction. A police officer firing a weapon is psycho-physiologically able
to control a certain limited sector of vision [Solomon 1989] due to what is called tunnel
vision caused by the stressful situation. Before shooting he or she can to some extent ascertain
of the safety of this control sector. The steeper the angle of deflection a ricochet has the more
probably it exits the sector and increases the danger to bystanders. Schyma and Placidi [1997]
made experiments on the subject. Ricochet assessment was also a part of the Police Technical
Centre test series [Jussila 2001c]. An ideal law enforcement bullet should not fragment during
glass or other light barricade and subsequent soft tissue penetration. It should, however, lose
most of its kinetic energy into deformation or disintegration on impact with a hard substance
like street surface or brick wall in order to minimise the danger from ricochets.

A bullet must do every time what is expected of it in a surgically accurate manner, nothing
less, nothing more. This is the optimisation problem faced when ammunition are evaluated to
find the suitable ones for law enforcement use [Jussila 2001c].
76 Discussion

Tissue devitalisation also seems to depend on the size of the target being smaller in limbs of
smaller size [Janzon et al. 1988 and 1997] resulting in scale dependence. Based on the
conclusions in paper IV the combination of too small test animals, high energy projectiles and
measurement inaccuracy [Tikka et al. 1982] could lead to unreliable results that cannot be
scaled.

A standard test set producing wound ballistic data for legitimacy assessment of law
enforcement firearms ammunition is needed. It should comprise of repeatable and relatively
easy to use tests that give realistic figures for comparison of different types of ammunition.
The variables examined should form a bridge between simulation experiments and real life
surgical operations in such a way that the figures are meaningful for the surgeon who can give
feedback for further improvement of the test set and its biofidelity.

None of the injury scoring systems used today seem to suit to this purpose. The Red Cross
Wound Classification does not consider the amount of devitalised tissue. The significance of
entry and exit wound sizes can also be debated as far as injury severity especially from the
irreversibility point of view is concerned. Therefore it can be used as a starting point but not
as a basis for injury classification. The envisioned possibilities for simulating the
classification are presented in table 10.

Table 10: Simulation possibilities of RCWC

Variable Method
Skin simulant on soft tissue
E = entry
simulant
Skin simulant on soft tissue
X = exit
simulant
Gelatine as soft tissue simulant.
C = cavity Soap does not register permanent
cavity.
Gelatine imbedded bone. Soap not
F = fracture
suitable
Gelatine imbedded vital organs.
V = vital structure
Soap not suitable
Gelatine as soft tissue simulant.
M = metallic body
Soap not very suitable

None of the medical databases in use today contain ballistic information relevant for
developing and validating a comprehensive simulation system. An Interface Firearms Injury
Scoring System – IFISS is therefore proposed. It is an interface definition standardising the
data collected both after simulation and during surgical operation. The data should consist of:

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Discussion 77

Weapon type (if known)

Calibre (if known)
Ammunition type (if known)
Shooting distance (if known)
Impact type (direct/ricochet/through barrier)
Barrier type
Ballistic protection worn
Projectile type (if known)
Projectile retained weight
Projectile degree of deformation
Wound channel length and proximity to vital organs
Entry and exit wound locations
Maximum diameters of entry and exit wounds
Mass of excised tissue
Bone injury classification

The above interface when applied in medical operations, simulant testing and computer
simulation would provide for a common bridge between these three worlds. It would establish
a system allowing consistent prospective and retrospective analysis that is called for
[Yoganandan and Pintar 1997]. The proposed IFISS-scoring could be used as the basis for a
common research database serving all areas of research. A conceptual drawing is presented in
figure 23. No such system combining the results of all branches of firearms injury research
exists today.

Figure 23: Conceptual view of the proposed IFISS-system

78 Discussion

8.4 Simulating bullet interaction using live and natural tissues

Living beings are different and they need to be anesthetised before wounding. The individual
differences would mean increasing the number of repetitions in order to achieve statistical
confidence. Anaesthesia introduces a source of doubt. Are the physiological reactions
unchanged? Is the retardation force of a totally relaxed muscle the same as with full muscle
tonus? Using cadavers or organs harvested from cadavers is also problematic. If a person has
been dead for some time what changes to the biophysical properties of the organs have taken
place? Achieving sufficient power of evidence might be difficult.

8.5 Synthetic simulants

The tissue simulants and their preparation methods have not been standardized making
comparison of the reported results somewhat difficult and reducing their power of evidence.
To reach the goal of comprehensive and surgery compatible wound ballistic simulation a lot
needs to be done. Validation of simulation materials is still at an embryonic stage with only
muscle and skin tissue simulants having been validated. Bone simulants have not been
validated with human bones. As the purpose is not to simulate wound ballistic events on a pig
the simulant system must be brought as close to a human being as possible. It has too often
been taken for granted that a pig resembles a human being. An example of this is the specific
gravity of muscle tissue quoted to be 1.06. It actually is that of a 100 kg landrace pig. Human
muscle tissue specific gravity is 1.02-1.04. A comprehensive study on the viscoelastic
properties of human tissues needs to be done in order to develop and validate corresponding
simulants.

Wound ballistic testing with tissue simulants cannot be replaced with computer simulation.
Power of evidence and needs of quality assurance require that real bullets must be fired upon
simulated targets. Computer simulation and modelling are, however, important for learning
more about the complex interaction between a projectile and a target. The mathematical
possibilities can far faster help to find better protection and bullet designs than experimental
research only.

Steel spheres have often been used to achieve precise dosage of kinetic energy dissipation
without the unpredictability and added variables of bullet tumbling, deformation and
fragmentation. Too far reaching conclusions from the obtained results should be avoided.
Without the effect of tumbling, deformation and fragmentation the spheres show a significant
correlation between the impact energy and tissue destruction [Fackler 1987]. This may have
been occasionally misunderstood as a general law applying to tumbling and deforming bullets
as well.

Tissue simulants can be divided into soft tissue, skin, bone and skull simulants. Several
requirements for soft tissue simulants have been presented. [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994,
Janzon 1997, Berlin et al. 1983, Fackler 1988a and 1988b, Pirlot et al. 2001]. Some

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Discussion 79

requirements may, however, be in contradiction to the use of a simulant as a measurement

tool and the requirements should maybe be modified and complemented as follows:

A good tissue simulant must possess the following qualities:

- similarity in the deceleration of the projectile between the simulant and the living tissue
the simulant has been validated for
- similarity in the deformation behaviour of the projectile
- similarity in the kinetic energy dissipation
- kinetic energy dissipation measurability with reasonable accuracy
- extrapolation of temporary cavity diameter
- elastic behaviour similar to living tissue for observation and measurement of temporary
cavity formation and tissue compression
- extrapolation of permanent cavity diameter
- reproducibility

The above list of requirements means that the simulant does not need to possess exactly the
same biomechanical properties as living tissue as long as the results can be measured and
appropriately extrapolated or scaled [Janzon et al. 1988] to reflect what happens in living
tissue. In fact a simulant with lower tensile strength than that of muscle tissue might allow for
more accurate measurement of the cavities and kinetic energy dissipation; hence the
requirement for extrapolation instead of similarity.

Even if soap makes a reasonably good muscle tissue simulant its possibilities in wound
ballistic research and especially forensic reconstruction are rather limited. Measuring the
degree of bullet fragmentation is an essential part of injury potential estimation. The total
weight of the fragments can be found as the difference between impact and retained weights.
It, however, neither describes the degree of fragmentation nor the distribution of the
fragments in the simulant. Both facts can easily be found when translucent gelatine is used
whereas with opaque soap this is not possible without x-ray equipment. If the bullet cannot be
found, as not so frequently happens, the retained weight of the bullet can be estimated from
the fragments recovered from gelatine.

A deforming bullet uses some amount of kinetic energy for deformation. Paper III presents a
method of estimating this energy Edef by crushing the bullet into the same length as when
shot into gelatine. The method leaves something to be desired as it simply crushes the bullet
axially. On impact with soft tissue simulant the open cavity in the tip of a hollow point bullet
forces the sides of the cavity outwards. Thus the actual value of Edef may be different.
Kinetic energy (Ed) dissipated into a plastic material like soap will produce a cavity the size
of which indicates the distribution of energy along the bullet channel. The Ed can be directly
calculated by measuring the size of the cavity [Berlin et al. 1982] A similar method could also
be applied to the fissures created by Ed into gelatine [Sellier and Kneubuehl 1994]. This could
render unnecessary the estimation of Edef provided that the correlation between the fissure
lengths and temporary cavity size reflecting the Ed can be proved to be sufficiently high. One
attempt has been done to prove it [Ragsdale and Josselson 1988] resulting in fairly low
correlations. Although the gelatine used was somewhat dubious (see 4.5.1) the test
arrangement was good and should be repeated using well controlled 10% gelatine proposed in
paper II and non-tumbling, non-deforming steel spheres as projectiles.
80 Discussion

Gelatine seems to be the best basis for producing ballistic simulants for all kinds of human
tissue types. Contrary to common belief good quality gelatine can be prepared quite easily
[paper III]. Polymer technology could be used to produce synthetic skin tissue. Simulation of
remote effects on blood vessels and nerves could be done, but suitable simulant materials
must first be found and then agreed upon.

Although gelatine seems to be the best soft tissue simulant for research on bullets this may not
be the case with arrows [Karger et al. 1998]. This is probably due to the difference in
cavitations. A relatively slow arrow does not cause significant cavitation. Therefore friction
against the long shaft of the arrow becomes a significant factor. A faster and shorter bullet
causes the simulant to cavitate away from its sides. It should also be noted that isotropic
materials like gelatine and soap fail to take into account the heterogeneous nature of tissues
and their different densities [Bartlett 2003]. Compound simulants consisting of layers of
different mechanical properties can be made of gelatine. It is also probably possible to
develop gelatine based tissue simulants that are suitable for all kinds of penetrations and also
microscopically and of pathological reactions resemble soft tissues. No such substances are,
however available at present and more research is required.

Gelatine, as it is today, is a measurement tool which acts upon the bullet in the same way as
soft tissue and records the kinetic energy dissipation profile. That can then be used for
estimating tissue devitalisation. Considering the prevailing controversy on the significance of
temporary cavity size, this can to some extent be debated. If a consensus on standard tissue
simulants is reached, cavitation, pressure transfer and biomechanical properties can easily be
measured and standardised as well.

Wound ballistic research with muscle tissue simulant produces information on what happens
when a bullet penetrates muscle tissue. A human being is very complicated organism.
Simulating penetration of a human being and effects on various tissue types is undoubtedly
possible but very difficult. Until more complex simulant combinations have been validated
skin, muscle tissue and bone simulants are all we have.

8.6 Considerations on the design of a simulation scenario

When injury potential is to be assessed the test method should have a strong relationship with
some foreseeable tactical situation. On the other hand all possible scenarios cannot possibly
be tested before any ammunition can be accepted for service use. We have to concentrate on
the essentials.

The shooting distance is one of the important issues of test design. In principle it should be
the same as the foreseeable minimum distance of tactical use. For example a 9x19 mm pistol
and submachine gun should be shot at 5 to 10 m, a 5.56x45 mm assault rifle at 10 m and a
7.62 mm sniper rifle at 50 to 100 m. Only the last one presents a problem for testing. Long
distance makes accurate bullet placement increasingly difficult and walking to the simulant
setup and back to the gun very laborious. The solution is to shoot the bullets at shorter range
using an impact velocity that is the same as when shot with a sniper rifle at 100 m.

Simulation of long range shooting can technically be achieved in two ways. Reducing the
amount of powder in the cartridge or using a shorter barrel will result in lower velocities. A
bullet may, however, not be fully stabilized at a short range and may subsequently have an
exceptionally large yaw angle upon impact, which may cause the bullet to tumble and

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Discussion 81

disintegrate even if it normally would not do that. If simulation of shooting distance is used, it
is recommended that the stability of the bullets is verified by shooting through a cardboard
target prior to testing or by placing a cardboard witness sheet in front of the simulant. If the
yaw angle seems to be unacceptably large, there may be something wrong with the barrel, the
bullet and the twist of the rifling may be incompatible or the bullet simply does not stabilize
sufficiently at that particular distance. In the last case the distance needs to be increased. A
5.56x45 mm assault rifle may be used at very short ranges and such distance adjustments
cannot be seen necessary for the assessment of maximum injury potential.
82 Conclusions

9 CONCLUSIONS

Papers I to V of this dissertation provide an unbroken chain of evidence from the

requirements of the International Law to a proposal for a standard method to assess the injury
potential of penetrating firearms ammunition.

Paper I interprets the legal obligations of the International Law into weapons technical
requirements. It was found that the intent, ratio legis, of the International Law is to prevent
unwarranted and superfluous injury and suffering, not to prohibit any technical bullet designs
per se. Technical terminology is used only to illustrate the intent. Meaningful enforcement of
this intent is impossible without an agreement on a validated and realistic assessment method
which does not view injury potential in isolation but also takes the relevant variables of a
firearms incident into account.

Paper II proposes that 10% gelatine be used as a standard muscle tissue simulant. It also
studies the effects of major preparation variables and proposes a precise method to prepare the
simulant.

Paper III defines the correlation between kinetic energy dissipation of a penetrating bullet and
the tissue devitalisation it causes.

Paper IV defines the mechanical properties of the human skin relevant to projectile
penetration and proposes a simulant material to complement the muscle tissue simulant when
testing low velocity projectiles, ricochets and post penetration dangerousness of a projectile.

Paper V compares the methods of measuring kinetic energy dissipation from the bullet
channel formed into gelatine. It also proposes the use of a flexible “shroud” to hold the
gelatine in place and suppress cavitation in the same way the surrounding tissue does in a
human body.

Even so the simulation fidelity needs improvements that can be obtained through coordinated
and systematic research. Until then the method is only the best we can do at the moment. The
coordination of the research requires not only co-operation between surgeons and wound
ballisticians to bring together the medical and weapons technical expertise but also a common
database to store the information in. No such system exists today.

Based on papers I to V and above conclusions a proposal for a standard method of assessing
the injury potential of a penetrating projectile is presented as the major conclusion of this
disseration. The method takes into consideration the injury potential to all counterparts of a
firearms incident, not only to the perpetrator as has been the case before.

The assessment method needs a formal process which interprets the results both from the
legal and moral points of view weighing the acceptability of a weapon in the society. This is
mandatory for the weapons of war. Morally it is no less compelling for the weapons of law
enforcement that the society has given the authority to use force against its own members for
the protection of its own members.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Conclusions 83
84 Recommendation for a standard
assessment method

10 RECOMMENDATION FOR A STANDARD

ASSESSMENT METHOD

The standard wound ballistic assessment method proposed is intended for providing
information that can be used for assessing the legitimacy of bulleted ammunition for law
enforcement purposes. The method consists of a basic reference test, a ricochet test, an entry-
exit wound test and a mathematical model for injury potential assessment.

The method does not determine the legitimacy but gives comparison figures on which the
decision can be based. The comparison figures are not precise forecasts on the amount of
tissue destruction but relative numbers derived from it.

The model is based on interpreting injury in terms of devitalised tissue (mdeb). A firearms
incident invariably has three parties: the law enforcement official, the offender and the non-
involved bystander. The offender is the primary target of a bullet fired by a law enforcement
official and the injury is caused by a penetrating bullet and increased by bullet fragmentation.

The same naturally applies to a bystander if the bullet misses the offender and hits a bystander
instead. This model, however, assumes that the injury potential to a bystander is a result of
residual energy after penetration of an offender and of ricocheting bullet. A ricochet is
considered to be more dangerous i.e. having greater injury potential the more it is deflected
from the impact surface. This is due to the fact that a steeply deflecting ricochet flies into the
direction not intended or controlled by the police officer. It more probably hits a bystander
and is therefore potentially more dangerous.

The simulation is based on using a 25 cm gelatine block for basic reference test (torso shot)
and its half 12.5 cm block for entry/exit wound test (extremity shot). The 25 cm length has
been chosen for the following reasons.

1. It is improbable that in a shooting incident the opponents stand facing each other.
Police officers are taught to stand at an angle (the “L”-stance) towards a customer. In a
threatening situation a person subconsciously seeks for a stable stance which means
turning into an angle towards the threat. It is therefore probable that a bullet passes
through a torso diagonally instead of a straight angle.
2. Shooting through 25 cm of simulant gives more complete picture of the bullet’s
behaviour and energy transfer characteristics in tissue. Even if vital organs are fairly
close to the skin it is not insignificant if a bullet dissipates most of its kinetic energy
for example 10 cm before exiting.

It is understood that the method does not directly address the proximity of vital organs.
Taking this into account would also introduce the need to include hit placement probability
calculus making the method excessively complex. The purpose is not to produce precise
physiological forecasts on the injury but to give realistic comparison figures by using
validated tissue simulants.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Recommendation for a standard 85
assessment method

10.1 Materials
Soft tissue simulant: 10% ballistic gelatine in 20x20x25 cm blocks prepared, verified and
used as in paper II.
Skin simulant: 1 mm upholstery “crust” cowhide defined in paper IV.
Ricochet impact surface: Concrete
PVC-LMF film (kitchen wrap) of 11 µm thickness and 1.25 g/cm3 density

10.2 Basic reference test

The test consists of shooting through a 25 cm primary block of gelatine, measuring the
residual velocity and catching the bullet with a secondary gelatine block complemented with
skin simulant. The skin is held in place with one layer of PVC-LMF film. Arrangement is
shown in figures 24 - 27.

Figure 24: Schematic of the basic reference test arrangement

86 Recommendation for a standard
assessment method

Figure 25: Schematic of primary block C1. A- impact direction, B – the shroud

Figure 26: Schematic of secondary block C2. A – impact direction, B – skin simulant, C2
– gelatine block and D – plastic film to hold the skin simulant in place.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Recommendation for a standard 87
assessment method

Figure 27: Photograph of the basic test setup at Police Technical Centre, Helsinki

The purpose of the test is

a) to measure kinetic energy dissipation Ed into the primary gelatine block by measuring
impact energy Ei and residual energy Er and estimating deformation energy Edef.
b) to measure the level of fragmentation into the primary gelatine block and
c) to calculate the bullet’s injury potential to a target person using items a and b and to a
bystander deriving the mass of excised (devitalised) tissue from Er.
The secondary block depicts the bullet’s ability to injure a bystander in the “worst case”
scenario of the bystander being quite close.

The test is repeated at least five times. More repetitions may, however, be required to gain
sufficient statistical confidence.

Measurement is done as follows. The primary gelatine block is cut into 50 mm sections. The
fissure lengths of each cross section and on entry and exit are measured using the Wound
Profile Method for calculating the proportion of kinetic energy dissipated into each 50 mm
section of gelatine as described in paper V. The maximum diameter of the temporary cavity in
gelatine is noted according to Red Cross Wound Classification variable C (cavity). Fragments
found in the primary block of gelatine are counted to obtain the Red Cross Wound
Classification variable M (metallic body).
88 Recommendation for a standard
assessment method

10.3 Ricochet test

The test consists of shooting a bullet at a 60o angle of attack (surface normal) into concrete
brick and catching the ricochet with a block of gelatine complemented with skin simulant as
depicted in figures 28 and 29.

Figure 28: Schematic of the ricochet test arrangement. D – direction of shot, αan – angle
of attack, T – ricochet surface, αdev – angle of deviation.

Figure 29: Photograph of the ricochet test setup.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Recommendation for a standard 89
assessment method

The purpose of the test is to determine the danger of injury a ricochet will cause to a
bystander by measuring the soft tissue penetration ability of the ricochet or ricocheting
fragments and their deflection angle and express the injury potential in terms of the mass of
excised (devitalised) tissue.

The test is repeated at least five times. More repetitions may, however, be required to gain
sufficient statistical confidence.

10.4 Entry and exit wound test

The test consists of shooting through a 12,5 cm (half length) gelatine block complemented
with skin simulant on both impact and exit sides. The skin is held in place on impact side with
one and on exit side with two layers of PVC-LMF film. The arrangement is shown in figure
30.

Figure 30: Schematic of entry and exit wound test arrangement. A – impact direction,
B1 and B2 – skin simulants, C2 – 12.5 cm gelatine block, D – Plastic film for holding the
skin, E – the shroud.

The purpose of the test is to determine the sizes of entry and exit wounds in a compatible way
with the Red Cross Wound Classification. The test simulates a thigh wound without bone
injury.
90 Recommendation for a standard
assessment method

10.5 Mathematical model for injury potential assessment

The purpose of the mathematical model is to produce three comparison figures describing a
bullet’s potential for injury.

[1] IPI = IPt + IPb

, where IPt is injury potential i.e. probable mass of devitalised tissue of the primary target
(offender) and IPb is the same for bystander if hit by accident.

[2] IPt = mdeb + mdebfr

, where mdeb is the sum of devitalised tissue according to

[3] mdeb = ∑ mdebi = 44.575 * Ed i + 10.319

for all 50 mm sections i of the gelatine as described in papers III and V. The mdebfr is
obtained using the same equation 3, but substituting Ed Efr (J) as follows:

[4] Efr = cfr * [0.5 * (mi –mr) * vi 2 / 1000]

, where cfr is the fragmentation coefficient, mi the impact mass (g), mr the retained mass (g)
and vi the impact velocity (m/s) of the bullet. An arbitrary value of 2 is proposed for cfr based
on relative increase in immediate, delayed local and remote damage caused by fragments
[Ordog et al. 1988, Fackler et al. 1984].

[5] IPb = mdebr + mdebric

, where mdebr is the sum of devitalised tissue according to Eq. 3 substituting Ed with Er. The
injury potential of a ricochet, mdebric, is estimated as follows. The retained mass of the
projectile mr and the specific weight msp of the bullet are measured. From mr and msp the
radius rric of a sphere is calculated. The amount of devitalised tissue is estimated as the mass
of muscle tissue inside a cylinder with a radius of rric and maximum penetration depth lw of
any ricocheted projectile fragment.

[6] rric = 3 3 * mr /( 4 * π * msp )

If lw < 5 mm, mdebric = 0, else

[7] mdebric = [π * (rric2) * lw * 0.00104]*(1 + Adef/90)

, where 0.00104 is the density of muscle tissue in g/mm3 [DeMuth 1966]. The value 5 mm is
the safe penetration distance [Connor et al. 1998, Bleetman and Dyer 2000, Bleetman et al.
2003], where penetration does not yet reach a vital organ. Adef is the mean deflection angle of
the ricocheting fragments.

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Recommendation for a standard 91
assessment method

If the ricocheting bullet has broken into less than 2 mm fragments (arbitrary value) mdebric is
given the value of 0.

It is very difficult to measure the residual velocity vr of a ricochet and thus derive mdebric
from Eq.3. Therefore a rough estimate based on the amount of crushed tissue is used. A
ricocheting bullet is severely deformed and may be broken to fragments. Their ballistic
coefficient and velocity decay are impossible to determine in order to say what the danger will
be at certain distance. Therefore a worst case scenario of a bystander standing next to the
impact surface is proposed.

The injury potential comparison figures will thus be:

• The Red Cross Wound Classification variables E, X, C and M
• Total figure for injury potential, IPI
• Injury potential for target person, IPt
• Injury potential for bystander, IPb
• Detailed wound ballistic data
92 Summary

11 SUMMARY

The study reviewed the International Law and established weapons technical and wound
ballistic interpretations based on ratio legis. They show that the law can be interpreted in
meaningful way without any significant need to rewrite it as technology advances. The
rationale is based on the concept of triunity between the bystander, the law enforcement
official and the offender and the need to protect them all from superfluous and unwarranted
injury – in that order. The interpretations in paper I lay the legal basis for wound ballistic
evaluation of injury potential. A formal procedure and organisation for review of service
ammunition is, however, still waiting to be established.

The study revealed some deficiencies in contemporary wound ballistic research. It tends to
concentrate on soft tissue ballistics. Even the soft tissue simulant and its preparation process
have not been standardised and the effects of different preparation variables have not been
properly researched. This has been corrected in paper II, which proposes the use of 10%
ballistic gelatine as the standard muscle tissue simulant and a standard method for preparing
and verifying it. A regression function for verification of valid gelatine was presented as

[23] lw = 0.594 * vi – 21.92 ± 5

, where vi is the impact velocity (m/s) of a 4.5 mm steel sphere, lw the depth of penetration
(mm) and ± 5 the value for allowed tolerance (mm).

In order to obtain meaningful measurement results with a simulant the measurements must be
correlated with actual gunshot injury. This was done in paper III by analysing 140 pig tests
that not only gave a reasonable correlation of 0.54 between excised (debrided, devitalised)
tissue (mdeb) and dissipated kinetic energy (Ed) per millimetre of wound channel, but also
showed that the use of too small test animals may result in excessive measurement error and
poor correlations. The relationship was described with a regression function of

[24] mdeb = 44.575 * Ed + 10.319 with R2 = 0.293 (R=0.54)

The analysis also showed that other ballistic variables such as impact energy, impact velocity,
impact power and impact momentum correlate poorly with devitalised tissue with correlation
coefficients of 0.16, 0.11, 0.23 and 0.09, respectively. The paper also corrected a
misunderstanding that dissipated energy would be the difference between impact and retained
energies. Part of the impact energy is expended in bullet deformation. A proposal for
estimating this deformation energy was made.

The significance of skin simulant lays in its role as a threshold velocity (vth) filter when the
ability to penetrate the skin and injury potential of low velocity projectiles like exiting or
ricocheting bullets are to be assessed, and to assess entry and exit wounds. Paper IV
investigated and presented the average properties of human skin and found the values as vth =
94 ± 4 m/s for a 4.5 mm lead sphere, tensile strength 18 ± 2 MPa and elongation at break 65 ±
5 %. Semi-finished chrome tanned upholstery “crust” cowhide of 0.9-1.1 mm thickness were

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

 Summary 93

found to have similar properties of vth = 90.7 m/s, tensile strength 20.89 ± 4.11 MPa and
elongation at break 61 ± 9 %.

Paper V continued with validating the gelatine against swine muscle tissue and proving the
Wound Profile Method to have the highest correlation of 0.89 and thus being the best method
of measuring dissipated energy from the fissures of bullet channel torn in gelatine.
Furthermore it presented the use of an elastic shroud to simulate the suppressive effect of
surrounding tissue and validated both the method and paper II proposed gelatine using the
data from paper III by shooting non deforming 9x19 mm and 7.62x39 mm bullets and
measuring the dissipated energies.

It is recognised that the bridge between simulated wound ballistic research and surgery is
quite weak. Data important for simulation is not stored in medical databases. Providing a
common interface between the two worlds would enhance the fidelity of simulation. Outlines
of an interface and a database were proposed.

Based on this research a standard wound ballistic test set together with a mathematical model
is proposed. It consists of a basic reference test, a ricochet test and an entry and exit wound
test. The test set will provide realistic comparison figures on injury potential to assist in
making a decision on the legal acceptability of law enforcement firearms ammunition.
94 Acknowledgements

12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is greatly indebted to many people who in many ways have helped me with
encouragement, material and extremely valuable comments. Without this help I could not
have accomplished this task. The unselfish willingness to assist and guide me has been an
unforgettable welcome to the scientific community. I wish to express special thanks to the
following people in no special order.

Maj.Gen., MD Timo Sahi, whose simple question started this all

Professor, MD Eero Kivilaakso of the Second Department of Surgery, Meilahti hospital,
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Docent, MD Ari Leppäniemi of the Second Department of Surgery, Meilahti hospital,
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Docent Ulf P. Arborelius, MD of Swedish Defence Research Agency, Sweden
Docent Harri Pihlajamäki, MD of the Institute of Military Medicine, Helsinki, Finland
Dr. Med.Vet. Bo Janzon of Swedish Defence Research Agency, Sweden
MD. PhD Thomas Kjellström of Swedish Defence Research Agency, Stockholm, Sweden
Dr. Kari Takamaa, National Defence College, Helsinki, Finland
Dr. Beat Kneubuehl, Defense Technology Service, Switzerland
Dr. Anthony Bleetman, PhD, FRCSEd, FFAEM, DipIMC RCSEd, Birmingham Heartlands
Hospital, U.K.
Mr. Erkki Ilves, director of Police Technical Centre, Helsinki, Finland
Mr. Heikki Alho, manager R&D, Police Technical Centre, Helsinki, Finland
Professor, Dr. Cynthia Bir, Wayne State University
Dr. Jürgen Knappworst, Dynamit Nobel, Germany
Dr. Mikael Paronen, University of Helsinki, Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry
Tech.Lic. Pekka Lintula, State Research Centre, Tampere, Finland
Professor, Dr. Gerhard Vogel, Germany
Police Superintendent Roger Alvefuhr, Swedish National Police Board, Stockholm, Sweden
Mr. Even Saether, head of development division, Police Procurement Service, Norway
Mr. Pertti Normia, legal counsellor, Ministry of the Interior, Finland
Dr. Steven Wright, Omega Foundation
Mr. Dominique Loye, technical advisor, legal department, International Committee of the Red
Cross
Mr. Erkki Kulomäki, senior researcher, National Bureau of Investigation, Finland
All my friends and colleagues at the Police Technical Centre…

…and last, but certainly not least my wife Lea

Jussila: Wound ballistic simulation, 2005

Acknowledgements 95
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