Ballistic Impact of Dry Woven

Ala Tabiei1 Fabric Composites: A Review

e-mail: ala.tabiei@uc.edu
This paper reviews the topic of ballistic impact of dry woven fabric composites. It high-
Gaurav Nilakantan lights previous work done in modeling the fabrics and the theory involved. Attention is
also given to experimental testing, ballistic penetration resistence, projectile character-
Department of Aerospace Engineering and istics, and failure modes in yarns and fabric. Concepts to further enhance the ballistic
Engineering Mechanics, penetration resistance of woven fabrics are discussed. This paper serves as an effective
University of Cincinnati, source of literature for those interested in conducting research into this topic. Altogether,
Cincinnati, OH 45221 176 references have been cited to allow further investigation. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.2821711兴

Keywords: ballistic impact, woven composite, yarn, fabric, finite element, material
model

1 Introduction weave, architecture, yarn crimp, and the various mechanisms of

energy absorption of the fabric, discussed later. To briefly com-
The impact resistance of high-strength fabrics makes them de-
pare various commercial brands of fabrics, Zylon woven fabrics
sirable in applications such as protective clothing for military and absorb nearly twice the energy per unit areal density 关specific
law enforcement personnel, protective layering in turbine frag- energy absorbed 共SEA兲兴 than both Kevlar and Spectra, when
ment containment, armor plating of vehicles, and other similar gripped on all four edges, and almost 12 times that of aluminum
applications involving protection resistance against a high veloc- fuselage skin. The ballistic impact performance of PBO systems is
ity projectile. Other applications include commercial aircraft and substantially superior to Kevlar 29 systems and marginally better
helicopter secondary composite parts, particularly facings of hon- than Kevlar KM2 systems 关4兴. It is reported in Ref. 关5兴 that Spec-
eycomb sandwich constructions, boat hulls, electrical and elec- tra fibers are ten times stronger than steel.
tronic parts, and coated fabrics 关1兴. Farjo and Miclau 关2兴 reviewed Previous review work includes a database of early ballistic fab-
the wounding potential and mechanisms of tissue damage from ric research by Cunniff 关6兴, and the mechanisms influencing bal-
firearms. This serves to stress the urgent need for protective sys- listic performance of woven fabrics by Cheeseman and Bogetti
tems against ballistic threats, especially applicable to body armor. 关7兴.
Roberts et al. 关3兴 modeled the effect of nonpenetrating ballistic
impact as a means to detect behind-armor blunt trauma 共BABT兲 in
humans. A detailed finite element model of the human thorax was 2 Modeling the Ballistic Impact of Fabric
developed in LSDYNA with a Kevlar vest modeled over the chest Over the past few decades, many different techniques have
and subject to nonpenetrating ballistic impact. The resulting pres- been used to derive the constitutive relations and model the over-
sure profiles and kinetic energy of the organs were used to identify all fabric behavior for use in ballistic impact applications. Differ-
mechanisms of injury. ent models include various effects and phenomena associated with
The first high-strength and high-modulus fibers were developed the ballistic impact of fabrics; however, there is no single com-
in the 1960s and ushered in a new era of fabric-based body armor prehensive model that reproduces and represents all phenomena at
that protected against lower-end firearms. Considerable research the same time. However, many simplistic models have been found
has been conducted since then, making the fabrics stronger and to yield results that are realistic.
increasing their ballistic penetration resistance while still main-
taining their flexibility. Simultaneously, efforts were on to apply 2.1 Classification According to Underlying Theory. Re-
these new armor piercing resistant fabrics to other applications searchers adopt different ways to approach the modeling of the
that also needed protection from fragment-simulating projectiles ballistic response of dry woven fabrics. The methodology is dis-
共FSPs兲. cussed in later paragraphs. This section simply enlists the ap-
Depending on the class to which they belong to, different fibers proaches adopted by various authors chronologically in each cat-
have different structural properties, leading to different responses egory.
to ballistic impact when woven into a fabric. Some examples are 2.1.1 Analytical. Analytical methods make use of general con-
aramids, such as Kevlar 共DuPont兲 and Twaron 共Teijin兲; poly共phe- tinuum mechanics equations and laws, such as the conservation of
nylene benzobizoxazole兲 共PBO兲 fibers, such as Zylon 共Toyobo兲; energy and momentum. Governing equations are set up using
ultraheavy molecular weight polyethylene 共UHMWPE兲, such as various parameters involved during the impact process. Analytical
Spectra 共Allied Signal兲; and PIPD fibers, such as M5. Other ex- methods are useful to handle simple physical phenomena, but be-
amples of commercial brands are Vectran 共Hoechst Calaneses兲, come increasingly complicated as the phenomena become more
Technora 共Teijin兲, and Nextel 共3M Ceramic Fiber Products兲. complex and involve many variables. This includes work by Vin-
These fibers are characterized by their high stiffness and strength son and Zukas 关8兴, Taylor and Vinson 关9兴, Parga-Landa and
to weight ratios. Individual yarns do not possess the strength to Hernandez-Olivares 关10兴, Hetherington 关11兴, Cox and Flanagan
safeguard against ballistic impact; however, when woven together 关12兴, Chocron-Benloulo et al. 关13兴, Navarro 关14兴, Walker 关15兴,
into a fabric, they possess a strength that is much larger than the Billon and Robinson 关16兴, Gu 关17兴, Phoenix and Porwal 关18,19兴,
sum total of the individual strands and also possess a strength to Xue et al. 关20兴, and Naik et al. 关21兴.
weight ratio higher than steel. This is attributed to the fabric
2.1.2 Semiempirical and Empirical. Empirical studies rely on
the analysis of data obtained through experimental work in order
1
Corresponding author. to examine the fabric response and obtain constitutive relations
Published online February 1, 2008. Transmitted by Associate Editor V. Birman. and failure criterion. This includes curve fitting, nonlinear regres-

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 sion analysis of experimental data, and the use of statistical dis- and Zukas 关8兴, Hearle et al. 关28兴, Taylor and Vinson 关9兴, Parga-
tributions. Parametric equations relate the various parameters Landa and Hernandez-Olivares 关10兴, Vandeurzen et al. 关47兴, Lo-
studied during the experiment. The method is useful when there mov 关30兴, Chocron-Benloulo et al. 关13兴, Barauskas et al. 关77兴,
are small numbers of variables to correlate 关22兴. The shortcoming Navarro 关14兴, Cunniff 关4,78,79兴, Billon and Robinson 关16兴, Sheng
is that the accuracy of the obtained model will depend on the and Hoa 关49兴, Tan et al. 关39兴, Lim et al. 关40兴, Zohdi 关80兴, Blan-
accuracy and completeness of the collected data. This includes kenhorn et al. 关81兴, and Porwal and Phoenix 关19兴. There is very
work by Cunniff 关23兴, Shim et al. 关24兴, and Gu 关25兴. limited work on ballistic impact of fabrics composed of multiple
layers of different fiber materials, such as Hearle and Sultan 关82兴,
2.1.3 Numerical. This approach relies on techniques, such as Cunniff 关83兴, and Porwal and Phoenix 关19兴.
finite element and finite difference methods, and the use of com-
mercial packages, such as ABAQUS, DYNA3D, and LSDYNA, to con-
2.3 Commercial Finite Element Software Packages Used
duct the analysis or simulation. Contact between the yarns, fabric
for Analysis. With the advent of supercomputing, commercial fi-
plies, and projectile is better handled through the use of commer-
nite element packages are gaining popularity because of the low
cial software. Further, the fabric yarns may be modeled explicitly,
cost alternative offered to costly experimentation and destructive
which leads to the capturing of certain phenomena that are not
testing, as well as the testing of potential materials not yet devel-
fully possible in other approaches, such as yarn pullout and the
oped. Finite element packages also offer the option of using of
effect of interyarn friction. This includes work by Roylance et al.
user-defined material models in place of the standard material
关26兴, Roylance and Wang 关27兴, Hearle et al. 关28兴, Shim et al. 关29兴,
models and thereby provide a useful platform for the testing of
Lomov 关30兴, Johnson et al. 关31兴, Teng et al. 关32兴, Simons et al.
new theories utilizing a numerical form of solution. Finite element
关33兴, Billon and Robinson 关16兴, D’Amato 关34,35兴, Tarfaoui and
codes can also handle complex interactions between the projectile
Akesb 关36,37兴, Lim et al. 关38兴, Tan and co-workers 关39,40兴, Lim
and fabric, penetration, contact and friction between yarns, and
et al. 关38兴, Gu and Xu 关41兴, Boisse et al. 关42兴, and Duan et al.
the deformation and failure of the fabric. Thus, it is a very useful
关43–45兴.
tool for the simulation of ballistic impact of woven fabrics.
2.1.4 Micromechanical. In a micromechanical approach, the In the ballistic impact testing of fabrics, the most commonly
fabric geometry is usually represented by a representative volume used commercial finite element packages are ABAQUS by
cell 共RVC兲, which by repeated translation will yield the entire ABAQUS Inc., which involves the ABAQUS/STANDARD and
fabric structure. This RVC is then analyzed through conditions of ABAQUS/EXPLICIT solvers, DYNA3D, which is part of a set of public
equilibrium of forces or variational potential energy methods to domain codes developed in the Methods Development Group at
compute displacements, strains, and stresses. This includes work Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 共LLNL兲 关84兴, and
by Dasgupta et al. 关46兴, Vandeurzen et al. 关47兴, Tan et al. 关48兴, LS-DYNA by Livermore Software Technology Corporation 关85,86兴.
Sheng and Hoa 关49兴, Tabiei and Ivanov 关50,51兴, and Xue et al. A few examples of research into ballistic impact of woven fab-
关52兴. rics that use these finite element packages are ABAQUS used by
Xue et al. 关20兴 and Diehl et al. 关87兴, DYNA3D used by Shockey et
2.1.5 Multiscale Constitutive. Multiscale approaches make al. 关65,66兴 and Lim et al. 关38兴, and LSDYNA used by Tabiei et al.
different assumptions of fabric behavior at different scales. This 关50,51,88,89兴, Shockey et al. 关67–69兴, Shahkarami et al. 关90兴,
arises due to the inherent multiscale nature of fabrics that are Blankenhorn et al. 关81兴, Gu et al. 关17,25兴, and Duan et al.
constructed from microscale fibrils. For example, the fabric be- 关43–45,91兴.
haves as a continuum membrane at the macroscale; at the micro-
scale, the behavior is accounted for by constitutive modeling of 2.4 Computer Software and Codes for Solid Modeling and
the yarns as elastic or viscoelastic members. This includes work Computing Properties of Textile Composites. Specialized codes
by Nadler et al. 关53兴 and Zohdi and Powell 关54兴. are available that are capable of generating 3D fabric models
2.1.6 Variational. Variational principles include the Reissner based on user input of parameters, such as weave density, crimp,
variational principle, Galerkin method, Rayleigh–Ritz method, and number of layers. These models can then be imported into the
and principal of minimum potential energy. These yield governing preprocessor of a commercial finite element package. Brown et al.
differential equations, which can then be numerically solved using 关92兴 described a technique to automatically generate a solid model
finite element and finite difference methods. This includes work of the representative volume element 共RVE兲 of the fabric struc-
by Leech et al. 关55兴, Roy and Shin 关56兴, Sheng and Hoa 关49兴, and ture. The solid model is generated using a program file written in
Sihn and Roy 关57兴. I-DEAS Open Language. Cox and Flanagan 关12兴 listed various
codes used in the computation of textile composite properties,
2.1.7 Experimental. In order to validate the results from theo- especially macroscopic stiffness, strength, and, occasionally, dam-
retical approaches, experimental data are required. Further, by ex- age tolerance. These include ␮TEX-10 and ␮TEX-20 by Marrey
perimentally studying the ballistic impact of woven fabrics, new et al., TEXCAD by Naik, PW, SAT5, and SAT8 by Raju, SAWC
mechanisms of energy absorption and failure may become appar- by Whitcomb, CCM-TEX by Pochiraju, WEAVE by Cox, and
ent, and the effect of various parameters on the ballistic response BINMOD by Cox et al.
can be individually and collectively studied. This includes work
by Susich et al. 关58兴, Wilde et al. 关59兴, Prosser 关60兴, Prosser et al. 2.5 Approaches to Modeling According the Author(s). This
关61兴, Field and Sun 关62兴, Starratt et al. 关63兴, Cunniff 关64兴, Shockey section reviews some of the approaches adopted by various re-
et al. 关65–69兴, Wang and Xia 关70,71兴, Shim et al. 关72兴, Manchor searchers that are frequently cited in open literature. It is by no
and Frankenberger 关73兴, Lundin 关74兴, Orphal et al. 关75兴, and Ru- means a comprehensive listing and merely serves to highlight the
pert 关76兴. This is discussed in further detail in later sections. varied and innovative nature of research into the ballistic impact
of woven fabrics.
2.2 Research Based on the Number of Fabric Plies Vinson and Zukas 关8兴 and Taylor and Vinson 关9兴 modeled the
Studied. Majority of the literature available today dealing with fabric as conical isotropic shells. The model treated the fabric as
ballistic impact of fabrics focuses on experimental and theoretical isotropic and did not differentiate between warp and weft direc-
work of a single fabric layer. The complexity of the analysis in- tions, leading to a conical shaped transverse deflection of the fab-
creases with the number of fabric layers because of the inclusion ric, which is contrary to experimental findings. Leech et al. 关55兴
of new energy dissipation mechanisms and increased interactions and Hearle et al. 关28兴 modeled the fabric as a net. Prosser 关60兴
between different plies of the fabric and between the target and derived a mathematical model for the FSP-nylon system in his
projectile. Few literature deals with the ballistic impact of armor study of ballistic impact of nylon panels by 0.22 caliber FSPs. He
composed of multiple identical layers of fabric, such as Vinson stated that for a set of Vc determinations, plots of Vr 共residual兲 and

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 Vs 共striking兲 can be adequately represented by parabolas. There posed of Twaron fibers in the finite element code DYNA3D, using
are periods in the plots of the squared V50 velocities and number membrane elements under the continuum assumption of fabric. A
of layers, where the plot linearity signifies that the mechanism of standard isotropic strain-rate-dependent elastic-plastic model was
penetration is constant. Cunniff 关83兴 examined system effects that used to incorporate the strain-rate dependency of the Twaron fi-
occur during the ballistic impact of woven fabrics by developing a bers studied in Ref. 关24兴. Since the fabric architecture such as yarn
conceptual framework that relates ballistic impact mechanics of a crimp and cross section was not considered, and the material was
single yarn to ballistic impact mechanics of the fabric. Ting et al. treated as isotropic, the deformation of the fabric was conical
关93兴 extended on the work of Roylance et al. 关94兴 and provided when in fact it should have been pyramidal. Cheeseman and Bo-
for contact between adjacent plies of a multiply target and intro- getti 关7兴 reviewed the factors that influence ballistic performance,
duced slippage at yarn crossover points. Their model predicted an specifically, the material properties of the yarn, fabric structure,
increase in the ballistic limit when the friction of slippage in- projectile geometry and velocity, far field boundary conditions,
creases. Cunniff and Ting 关95兴 developed a numerical model that multiple plies, and friction.
treated yarns as elastic rod elements based on the work of Ref. Ivanov and Tabiei 关99兴 considered the fabric to be a grid of
关27兴. Walker 关15兴 developed a constitutive model for an aniso- pin-jointed bar elements in their micromechanical approach.
tropic fabric sheet based on elastic deformations of the fibers. The Tabiei and co-workers 关50,51,99–101兴 modeled the fabric as thin
centerline deflection of the fabric sheet was solved with an ap- shells and developed their own material model for use with the
proximate analytical solution that yields the final deformed fabric shell elements, which included effects of fiber reorientation and
shape and a simple equation for the force-displacement curve. locking angle, and fabric architecture such as crimp. The trellis
Ting et al. 关93兴 and Shim et al. 关29兴 modeled the fabric material as mechanism behavior of the flexible fabric in a free state before the
an orthogonal grid of pin-jointed member elements. Shim et al. packing of the yarns is achieved by discounting the shear moduli
关24兴 used a three-element spring-dashpot model to represent the of the yarn material. The fibers were treated as viscoelastic mem-
viscoelastic behavior of the fibers and capture its strain-rate sen- bers with a strain-rate-based failure. The model was implemented
sitivity. The model accounts for yarn crimp. Roylance et al. 关26兴 as a user-defined subroutine in LSDYNA. Contact forces at the fiber
modeled the fabric as an orthogonal mesh assembly of nodes in- crossover points were used to determine the rotational friction that
terconnected by flexible fiber members. A finite difference method dissipated a part of the energy during reorientation. Gu 关25兴 ex-
was applied at the yarn crossover points to simulate ballistic im- plicitly modeled individual yarns and combined them to form the
pact. Artificial buckup springs in the transverse direction play a fabric mesh. A bimodal Weibull distribution was used to form the
significant role in the ballistic limit determination. The model tensile constitutive equations of the Twaron yarn at high strain
lacks contact surfaces to interact with the projectile. Johnson et al. rates. Diehl et al. 关87兴 used ABAQUS/STANDARD and ABAQUS/
关31兴 modeled the fabric with both pin-jointed members and thin EXPLICIT to model the structural performance of systems contain-
membrane shells. The computational model used a constitutive ing woven fabrics. They investigated the limitations and numeri-
strength and fracture model that depended on individual fiber cal problems of classical orthotropic lamina models and
characteristics. The bilinear stress-strain relationship is assumed introduced an improved generalized cargo-net approach, models
for the bar members to simulate yarn crimp. Shell elements pro- for membrane-only and general shell behaviors, and experimental
vide the contact surface and shear stiffness. measurements utilized to obtain effective modeling constants and
Shockey et al. 关65–69兴 used finite solid elements to explicitly parameters. Termonia 关102兴 formulated the mechanics of wave
model individual yarns and combined them in an orthogonal propagation in terms of impulse-momentum balance equations,
weave to form the fabric. The model was found to be computa- which are solved at each fiber crossover using a finite difference
tionally very expensive and became unstable as the number of technique. The model accounts for projectile characteristics, such
elements used to discretize the yarns crossed a certain value. as shape, mass, and velocity, and also fiber properties such as
However, the explicit yarn modeling allowed for the observation denier, modulus, and tensile strength. The model also considers
of phenomena such as yarn-yarn interaction and yarn pullout. Ka- yarn slippage through the clamps, which is often seen in experi-
miya et al. 关96兴 reviewed recent advances in the fabrication and mental work. Termonia 关103兴 also numerically investigated the
design of three-dimensional textile performs. Their review de- puncture resistance of fibrous structures by driving a needle
tailed advances made toward realizing an integrated approach in shaped projectile through a single fabric ply at a constant velocity
the design and manufacture of three-dimensional textile performs. of 100 m / s. Termonia et al. 关104兴 theoretically studied the influ-
Rao and Farris 关97兴 experimentally and theoretically studied the ence of the molecular weight on the maximum tensile strength of
influence of twist on the mechanical properties of high perfor- polymer fibers.
mance fiber yarns, including Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49, Kevlar 149, Barauskas and Kuprys 关105兴 developed a model that could
Vectran HS, Spectra 900, and Technora. A model based on com- handle the collision between fabric yarns in woven structures,
posite theory was developed to highlight the decrease in modulus where the longitudinal elastic properties of each yarn are pre-
as a function of degree of twist and elastic constants of the fibers. sented as a system of nonvolumetric springs. Their collision and
They concluded the existence of an optimal twist angle of around response algorithm worked in a 3D space and was based on tight
7 deg, where all fibers exhibit their maximum tensile strength. At fitting of the yarns by using oriented bounding boxes, with a sepa-
higher angles of twist, the fibers get damaged, reducing their ten- ration axis theorem to handle collision detection between the ori-
sile strength. The study of Gasser et al. 关98兴 aimed at recalling the ented bounding boxes. They assumed the yarn cross-sectional area
specificity of the mechanical behavior of dry fabrics and to under- to be constant and elliptical in shape, with changing lengths of
stand the local phenomena that influence the macroscopic behav- axes. Their system is characterized by a significant reduction in
ior. 3D finite element analysis was compared to biaxial tests on degrees of freedom while still preserving the volumetric behavior
several fabrics. The developed model helped understand the main of the structure, when compared to traditional models that con-
aspects that lead to the specific behavior of woven fabrics and also sider yarns as fully deformable volumetric bodies. Phoenix and
helped design new fabrics by varying mechanical and geometric Porwal 关18兴 developed a membrane model based on an analytical
parameters. Billon and Robinson 关16兴 considered the fabric to be approach to study the ballistic response and V50 performance of
a collection of pin-jointed members. Both an analytical method multiply fibrous systems. They developed solution forms for the
and direct step finite element method were used, and their results tensile wave and curved cone wave considering constant projectile
were compared to experimental results. The input to the analytical velocity, and obtained an approximate solution for the membrane
model includes fabric material properties, a constitutive relation response using matching boundary conditions at the cone wave
and a failure criterion. The model then predicts the ballistic limit front. Then, projectile deceleration due to membrane reactive
and residual velocity. Lim et al. 关38兴 modeled fabric armor com- forces was considered to obtain other results, such as cone veloc-

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 ity, displacement, and strain concentration versus time. A later individual yarns. A scanning electron microscope was also used to
study by Porwal and Phoenix 关19兴 based on the above membrane study the cross-section failed yarns. A large number of experimen-
model studied the system effects in the ballistic impact of a cylin- tal tests were conducted, which involved tensile testing of yarns,
drical projectile into flexible, multilayered targets with no bonding push rod tests of fabric meshes, as well as large scale impact tests
between the layers. Each layer was assumed to have in-plane, with gas guns and aircraft fuselages lined with high energy-
isotropic, and elastic mechanical properties. absorbing fabrics at the NAWC-China Lake test facility. Further
large scale tests including engine debris penetration were con-
3 Experimental Testing of Ballistic Impact of Fabrics ducted by Lundin 关74兴 and Manchor and Frankenberger 关73兴.
and Study of Yarn Mechanical Properties Cunniff 关64兴 used a compiled database of experimental Vr and
As mentioned in earlier sections, experimental testing provides Vs data that included various materials such as nylon, Kevlar, and
an important source of data that can be used to test the validity of Spectra; projectile shapes such as steel and tungsten right circular
theoretical approaches. It provides a wealth of information into cylinders, steel chisel-nosed FSPs, steel cubes, and steel and tung-
the mechanical and material properties of the constituent yarns sten spheres; projectile masses ranging between 2 and 128 grains;
and fabrics. It also forms the basis for empirical studies. and obliquities ranging between 0 deg and 45 deg apart from stan-
dard normal obliquities, to establish a generalized relationship for
3.1 Photographic Investigation and Continuous Monitor- body armor V50 and residual velocity as a function of various
ing Systems. Susich et al. 关58兴 conducted a microscopic study of parameters listed in the database. This was used to estimate V50
impact of multilayer nylon body panel armor. Wilde et al. 关59兴 velocities where no prior data exist, Vs-Vr curves for new materi-
conducted a photographic investigation of high-speed missile im- als, and variation of V50 velocity with changes in test conditions
pact upon a nylon fabric. An important inference from this study, and procedures. Rupert 关76兴 observed that very few open literature
as observed by Gu 关25兴, is that the initial shape of the deformed was available for current pistol ammunition protection by fabric
fabric target upon impact is pyramidal, and it transforms into a systems, which could be used to calibrate specialized numerical
conical shape after the projectile completely penetrates through and analytical fabric models for other applications. He presented a
the fabric target. Prosser et al. 关60兴 used optical sensors in his base line calibration data set for the 9 mm M882 NATO Ball
study of the penetration of nylon panels by FSPs. Starratt et al. round against 10, 20, and 30 plies of Hexcel Schwebel style 706
关106兴 designed a simple, cost effective continuous measuring sys- Kevlar KM2 fabric. V50 values were calculated using the maxi-
tem, called the enhanced laser velocity system 共ELVS兲, to study mum likelihood method 关112兴, and estimates for limit velocity and
the ballistic impact of fabric targets. Through simple mathematical parameters describing the overmatching case were based on Lam-
operations, the system could be configured to determine the time bert’s Vs-Vr method 关113兴. Orphal et al. 关75兴 performed ballistic
histories of velocity and acceleration, impact force, and projectile tests against a Zylon fabric to measure the fabric displacement and
energy loss during an impact. Mitchell and Carr 关107兴 used an radius of fabric deformation against time, and analyzed the results
environmental scanning electron microscope to examine the post- in the context of the Walker model 关15兴.
failure of body armor textiles. Prosser et al. 关61兴 studied the effect
Gu 关17兴 used a MTS material tester and split Hopkinson bar to
of heat on the penetration of cloth ballistic panels. Evaluations by
study the tensile properties of the Twaron filament yarn at strain
light microscopy, polarized light microscopy, and scanning elec-
rates varying from 0.01 s−1 to 1000 s−1. Shim et al. 关72兴 experi-
tron microscopy showed heat induced damage in the fibers along
mentally investigated the impact of a Twaron woven fabric by
the path of the projectile. Field and Sun 关62兴 conducted a high-
12 mm diameter spheres at varying impact speeds and angles of
speed photographic study of fibers and woven fabrics. Steel balls
incidence. They concluded that at low impact speeds and obliq-
were fired at velocities up to 1000 m / s into various fibers and
uity, there is a sliding of the projectile along the fabric surface
Kevlar fabrics, and the transverse wave speeds were examined.
leading to an additional mode of energy dissipation. For higher
They concluded that materials having a high stress wave velocity
angles of incidence 共30 deg and 45 deg兲, a postperforation deflec-
were advantageous in dissipating more impact energy by involv-
tion of the projectile is observed, which increases with impact
ing more yarns and therefore material in the energy dissipation
velocity. Yang et al. 关114兴 analyzed stress uniformity in split Hop-
process by propagating stresses and strains more quickly to neigh-
kinson bar test specimens and provided guidelines to assess the
bouring fibers. Field et al. 关108兴 also reviewed experimental tech-
validity of experimental data. A split Hopkinson bar apparatus is
niques used in high rate deformation and shock studies. Shockey
frequently used in the experimental determination of fabric me-
et al. 关66兴 used scanning electron microscopy to study fibers, of
chanical properties. Kinari et al. 关115兴 developed an impact tensile
Zylon, Spectra, and Kevlar that had failed after yarn tensile tests.
testing apparatus based on the one-dimensional elastic-stress-
Schmidt et al. 关109兴 described how a pair of high-speed digital
wave theory. The load induced in the specimen was measured by
cameras using 3D image correlation photogrammetry can provide
a cantilever-type load cell. Stress-strain curves for strain rates
full-field dynamic deformation, and shape and strain information.
This technique is used to validate and iterate certain LSDYNA mod- ranging from 10−3 s−1 to 10+3 s−1 were obtained. It was observed
els as well as Kevlar ballistic impact testing, where the aim is to that the breaking load and modulus increased consistently with
quantify the maximum out-of-plane deflection that occurs at ve- strain rate, while the elongation to failure decreased. Later, Kinari
locities approaching the penetration threshold. Full field behavior et al. 关116兴 developed a new impact tensile testing apparatus to
such as dynamic rippling, comparison of various weaves, and al- investigate dynamic mechanical properties of super fiber yarns
ternative ballistic fabrics can also be analyzed 关109兴. such as aramid and carbon fibers with smaller breaking elongation
than most synthetic fibers. Stress-strain curves for strain rates
3.2 Experimental Work. The work of Shockey and co- ranging from 10−3 s−1 to 10+3 s−1 were obtained. Cheng et al.
workers 关65–69,110,111兴 formed an excellent and extensive 关117兴 experimentally studied the stress-strain behavior of a single
source of experimental data into the ballistic impact of woven Kevlar KM2 fiber, the effect of loading rate, and axial-transverse
fabrics, including load stroke, stress-strain, specific energy ab- loading interaction. They concluded that longitudinal tension can
sorption, and residual velocity data, as well as the effect various stiffen the transverse behavior at large deformations, while large
parameters have on the ballistic penetration resistance of fabrics. residual strains in the transverse direction do not significantly alter
A video camera used in push tests simultaneously records the mechanical properties in the longitudinal direction. The mechani-
deforming backsurface of the fabric at a very low angle to show cal behavior of Kevlar KM2 fibers was also found to be insensi-
fabric deformation along the plane of the fabric, as well as a tive to loading rates in the range of 1400−1 – 2500 s−1.
mirror that is inclined at 45 deg to the fabric, which allows a Wang and Xia 关70,71兴 studied the effect of strain rates varying
90 deg view or vertical view of the backsurface of the deforming from 10−4 s−1 to 10+3 s−1 and temperature varying from
fabric. The camera can be zoomed in to allow a resolution of −60° C to 90° C on Kevlar 49 aramid fiber bundles. Stress-strain

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 curves obtained showed the strain rate and temperature sensitivity the woven fabric. Relative humidity was observed to affect the
of the mechanical properties of Kevlar 49 fibers. They observed friction coefficient for hydrophilic surfaces. The yarn linear-
the initial elastic modulus, strength, and failure strain increase density factor was observed to have the largest impact on friction,
with increasing strain rate for a constant temperature, and the with fabrics made of higher linear-density yarns having a lower
initial elastic modulus decreases and failure stain increases with friction coefficient. The polyvinyl chloride disk used in the tri-
increasing test temperature for a fixed strain rate. bometer to study the frictional properties as a function of surface
The puncture and tearing of woven fabrics was experimentally treatment yielded good approximations of fabrics sliding on steel
studied by Primentas 关118兴. The effect of impact angle and punc- 关132兴.
ture mass on the tear propagation length was studied. Shin et al. Duan et al. 关43–45兴 used LS-DYNA to numerically study the
关119兴 developed a test procedure for evaluating the cut resistance effect of friction on the ballistic impact behavior of high-strength
of yarns under tension-shear loading conditions. A knife blade is fabrics. Zeng et al. 关133兴 attempted to include frictional effects
transversely pressed at a constant rate against a gripped Zylon into the models proposed by Roylance and Wang 关27兴 and Shim et
yarn, and the load-deflection response is studied from which the al. 关29兴. They concluded that the ballistic response of a woven
energy required for the cut-through is computed. Prosser 关120兴 fabric is very sensitive to the yarn friction for low frictional coef-
studied the impact of nylon ballistic panels by 0.22 caliber FSPs ficients, but insensitive beyond a certain level. Their results also
and concluded that the major mode of penetration was by a cut- showed that high interyarn friction can lead to premature yarn
ting, shearing action and that the force required for shearing fail- rupture, thus reducing the energy absorption capability of the fab-
ure of yarns was less than that by tensile failure. ric.

3.3 Estimation of Yarn Elastic Modulus in the Transverse 3.5 Effect of Heat Generation During Impact. The primary
Direction. Hadley et al. 关121兴 determined the transverse Young’s cause of heat generation during impact is friction between the
modulus through a relation between contact area and compressive contact surfaces of the projectile, yarns, and individual filaments.
force through an analytical solution to this plane strain problem. Carr 关134兴 noted fiber melting and the formation of shear bands
Pinnock et al. 关122兴 measured change in fiber diameter parallel to during the high impact energy studies of UHMWPE yarns. Fiber
the plane of the flats as a function of compressive load. Transverse melting, polymer bridging, and fiber fusion due to heat generation
Young’s modulus was then determined using another analytical have also been noted by Prosser et al. 关61兴 and Prevorsek et al.
method. Kawabata 关123兴 derived a relationship between compres- 关135兴. In the absence of substantial twist, yarn extension during
sive load and displacement measured by a force transducer and pyramid formation results in a temperature rise of 2 – 3 ° C experi-
linear differential transformer mounted on the push rod to deter- mentally. During the mechanical compression of Spectra, Kevlar,
mine the transverse Young’s modulus. Cheng and Chen 关124兴 used and nylon panels, the maximum temperature rise was 6.1° C for
a theoretical analysis to derive an equation between transverse nylon. However, temperatures as high as 76.6° C were recorded
compressive force and displacement from which transverse on the rear surface of nylon ballistic panels after perforation by a
Young’s modulus can be determined after determining two Pois- 0.22 caliber projectile 关61兴. Prosser et al. 关61兴 presented a quali-
son’s ratios and longitudinal Young’s modulus. Cheng et al. 关125兴 tative analysis to explain the phenomena and concluded frictional
reviewed the aforementioned literature and also studied the trans- heat to be an additional heat sink, resulting in heat induced poly-
verse mechanical properties of Kevlar KM2 fibers and determined mer bridging and crystallinity changes in UHMWPE yarns. Using
the transverse elastic modulus of those fibers to be a finite element analysis, Prevorsek et al. 关135兴 determined that
1.34⫾ 0.35 GPa. They concluded that Kevlar KM2 fibers exhibit the heat generation and corresponding termperature rise has a
a phenomenon similar to the Mullins effect 共stress softening兲 in minimal influence on the ballistic performance of UHMWPE due
rubber 关124兴. The Young’s modulus in the longitudinal direction to the short time frame in which it occurs.
and Poisson’s ratios were also determined. Gasser et al. 关98兴 stated
that yarn thickness variation during tension is very significant and 4 Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties of Fiber
can reach locally important values between 30% and 40%. Ting et Yarns and Ballistic Penetation Resistance of Fabric
al. 关126兴 studied the effect of transverse yarn interaction and Meshes
found it had a significant influence on textile ballistic response.
Cheeseman and Bogetti 关7兴 reviewed the mechanisms influenc-
3.4 Friction and Tribological Properties of Yarns and Wo- ing the ballistic performance of woven fabrics. The ballistic pen-
ven Fabrics. Friction plays an important role in determining bal- etration resistance and mechanisms involved are a combination of
listic effectiveness of a fabric. There are three sources of friction many simultaneous factors. It is therefore not possible to single
during the ballistic impact of woven fabrics: yarn-yarn friction, out any one factor as the controlling parameter in ballistic impact
projectile-yarn friction, and fiber-fiber friction. Briscoe and Mota- or to investigate the role of an individual parameter without first
medi 关127兴 studied the role of interfacial friction and lubrication explicitly stating the combination of other parameters used in the
in yarn and fabric mechanics, and later Briscoe and Motamedi study. This is confirmed by Prosser et al. 关61兴, stating that if bal-
关128兴 examined the role of yarn friction on Kevlar 29 and Kevlar listic performance was based solely on yarn toughness, then nylon
49 fibers. Kirkwood and co-workers 关129,130兴 studied yarn pull- would have a better ballistic resistance than Kevlar, which as we
out as a mechanism for dissipating ballistic impact energy in Kev- know is not the case. Laible 关136兴 reconfirmed this by stating that
lar KM2 fibers. A semiempirical model was developed to predict when high-strength polypropylene was compared to nylon having
yarn pullout force and energy as a function of pullout distance, two-thirds the strength, it was found that nylon was the better
and included the effect of yarn uncrimping and subsequent trans- performer. Roylance et al. 关94兴 summed this up in his observation
lation. The experimental testing was done in a laboratory under that the response of fabrics cannot be determined from the prop-
quasistatic conditions; however, on comparison with ballistic erties of the fibers alone since the material properties and fabric
tests, they concluded that the results of the quasistatic tests could geometry combine to produce the structural response. Ballistic
be quantitatively correlated with yarn pullout during ballistic im- performance parameters include ballistic limit, critical and V50
pact. Interyarn friction played a major role in the energy dissipa- velocity, SEA, casualty reduction analysis 关137–141兴, and proof
tion associated with yarn pullout. velocity.
Rebouillat 关131兴 studied the tribological behavior of woven fab- Bourget and Pageau 关142兴 introduced a new approach that uti-
rics made from Kevlar yarns of different linear densities and com- lized Vr-Vs experimental data from different material and projec-
pared it with the behavior of their constitutive yarns with different tile combinations. This effective velocity 共Veff兲 method aimed at
surface treatments. A traditional friction meter was used for the defining a single ballistic performance parameter that represented
individual yarns, and a pin-on-disk tribometer 关131兴 was used for average energy absorption capability of soft armor materials.

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 Cunniff 关143兴 derived a dimensionless fiber property U* de- that strain wave transmissions and reflections at yarn crossovers
fined as the product of the specific fiber toughness and strain wave do not significantly affect the propagation of the strain wave away
velocity, which could be used to qualitatively assess the perfor- from the impact zone.
mance of fibers,

冑
4.2.2 Twist. There is an optimal twist angle of around 7 deg
␴␧ E where all fibers exhibit their maximum tensile strength. At higher
U* = 共1兲
2␳ ␳ angles of twist, the fibers get damaged, reducing their tensile
strength 关97兴. Pan et al. 关150兴 studied the obliquity effect of yarn
and observed the effect of different loading angles on the strengths
He obtained two dimensionless parameters that related ballistic
and breaking strains of the yarn specimens using a special tech-
impact performance to fiber mechanical properties independent of
impacting projectile mass, presented area, or armor system areal nique for tensile yarn sample specimens.
density. 4.2.3 Crimp. Yarn crimp refers to yarn undulation and is a
4.1 Yarn Material and Mechanical Properties. According property by virtue of the yarn weave. In a plain weave, the degree
to the theory proposed by Smith et al. 关144兴, the speed at which of crimp is unbalanced as the warp yarns are usually more
the longitudinal stress wave propagates through a yarn is given by crimped than the weft yarns by virtue of the mechanism of the

冑
weave formation, where adjacent warp yarns are alternatively
E raised and lowered with respect to the fabric plane and then weft
c= 共2兲
␳ yarns are led back and forth in a straight direction through these
warp yarns and along the fabric plane by the weaving machine.
where c is the stress wave speed, and E and ␳ are the Young’s Finally, the raised and lowered warp yarns are brought back to the
modulus and density of the yarn material. The longitudinal wave plane of the fabric to form the final weave. This results in the weft
velocity in a warp or weft yarn in a plain-woven fabric is c / 冑2
yarns being straighter than the undulated warp yarns. Chitrangad
关148兴 proposed using weft yarns that had a larger elongation to
since the linear density of the yarn along which the wave propa-
gates is effectively doubled in a plain-woven fabric. The higher break than the warp yarns, so that both warp and weft yarns would
the modulus of elasticity and the lower the density, the faster the fail at the same moment, reducing the effect of yarn crimp. The
stress wave will propagate through the yarns, and the correspond- resulting hybridized weave was found to have a higher V50 veloc-
ing fabric through the yarn crossover points. This means that more ity than weaves composed entirely of an identical yarn material
number of yarns will be involved in the energy absorption pro- 关148兴. Tan et al. 关151兴 compared two methods of modeling crimp
cess, leading to increased energy dissipation as the stresses and with results obtained from experiments. They concluded that ac-
strains are quickly transmitted to adjacent yarns 关27兴. This was counting for crimp by modeling linear elements in a zigzag man-
observed in a photographic study by Field and Sun 关62兴. Roylance ner yielded more accurate results than trying to account for crimp
关145兴 stated that the strain wave profile when propagating in a in the constitutive relations.
fabric differs considerably from that when propagating in a single
yarn upon impact. Termonia et al. 关104兴 studied the influence of 4.2.4 Number of Fabric Plies. Shockey et al. 关67兴 observed
molecular weight on the maximum tensile strength of polymer that the SEA was significantly higher for multiply targets than
fibers. single-ply targets. This was attributed to the fact that interply fric-
The mechanical properties of fibers are highly rate dependent. tional forces inhibited the sideways motion of the yarns in the
There is only limited work that has been conducted to determine first-hit ply, causing an increased ballistic penetration resistance.
the rate-sensitive properties of Kevlar yarns 关10,66,70,71兴, Lim et al. 关40兴 reported that at high impact velocities, plied
Twaron fibers 关146兴, Spectra yarns 关66兴, Zylon yarns 关65,66兴, and double-ply systems perform better than spaced systems for sharp-
fabrics 关24兴. Wortmann and Schulz 关147兴 examined the nonlinear nosed projectiles, and the reverse is true for hemispherical-nosed
viscoelastic performance of Nomex, Kevlar, and polypropylene projectiles while no distinction can be made for flat-nosed projec-
fibers in a single step relaxation test. tiles. Cunniff 关83兴 observed that spaced single plies absorbed
more energy than layered systems in his studies of impact of
4.2 Fabric Architecture. Apart from the high-modulus and Kevlar, Spectra, and nylon panels with chisel-pointed FSPs. The
high-strength properties of the constituent yarns, the architecture influence of projectile geometry becomes less significant as the
is what gives a fabric its unique ballistic penetration resistance. number of plies increases 关40,61,152兴. Cunniff 关78兴 also observed
4.2.1 Weave and Weave Density. Weave patterns used in bal- that armor system response appears to be decoupled through the
listic applications are usually plain and basket weaves. It was thickness of a system and is primarily inelastic at high impact
observed that loosely woven fabrics and fabrics with unbalanced velocities relative to the V50 velocity. He concluded that some of
weaves resulted in an inferior ballistic performance 关83兴. Weave the relatively expensive armor material at the impact face of an
density refers to the number of yarns per unit dimension along the armor system may be replaced by less expensive materials with-
principal yarn directions, with the length dimension usually ex- out loss in performance.
pressed in inches. For example, 34⫻ 34 refers to 34 yarns/ in. in Porwal and Phoenix 关19兴 made the following observations from
the warp and weft directions, respectively. In the studies of impact their study. The V50 velocity of a target degrades progressively as
of single-ply Zylon fabrics by Shockey et al. 关67兴, it was observed the spacing between layers is increased relative to the sum of
that energy absorbed was roughly proportional to the fabric areal layer thickness without spacing. For a given set of layers with
density. Ballistic effectiveness did not appear to be a strong func- differing mechanical properties, the V50 and residual velocity de-
tion of mesh density or weave tightness as the SEAs of 30⫻ 30, pend on the order of placement. For a system with identical layers
40⫻ 40, and 45⫻ 45 targets were about the same 关67兴. The den- of a given in-plane tensile strength, the V50 velocity increases with
sity of the weave is also termed as the cover factor and is deter- increasing strain-to-failure ratio of the layers.
mined by the width and pitch of the warp and weft yarns. Accord-
ing to Chirtangad 关148兴, the cover factor must lie between 0.6 and 4.3 Friction. Frictional processes within the fabric systems
0.95 when used in ballistic applications. Cover factors greater are important for both normal indentations and ballistic deforma-
than 0.95 imply yarn degradation by the weaving process, and tions as they control the effective stiffness of the material. Fabrics
those lesser than 0.6 imply that the fabric is too loose. The pres- with high friction and the lowest effective moduli were observed
ence or absence of slack does not significantly alter the ballistic to dissipate larger amounts of energy relative to fabrics with lower
penetration resistance 关68兴. Freeston and Claus 关149兴 observed friction, for both quasistatic and ballistic deformation processes

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 关128兴. Interyarn friction will also determine the energy required to 5 Effect of the Projectile Characteristics
pull a yarn out of the fabric mesh, which is a significant source of
energy dissipation during the failure mode of yarn pullout 5.1 Projectile Geometry and Mass. Larger FSPs have a
关129,130兴. larger presented area of impact and, consequently, will have to
Duan et al. 关91兴 concluded that friction has an indirect effect on break more number of yarns to penetrate the fabric 关66兴. Sharper
fabric energy absorption by influencing the number of yarns that FSPs more easily penetrate fabric targets, resulting in smaller
become involved. They also concluded that yarn-yarn friction hin- SEAs than blunt-faced FSPs. Shockey et al. 关67兴 used ungripped
woven fabric or felt overlays in an effort to improve ballistic
ders relative motion between yarns and resists uncrimping of the
performance against sharp-edged impactors. They observed that
fabric weave tightness, inducing the fabric to fail earlier during
the overlay wrapped itself around the impactor during penetration,
impact. The projectile-fabric friction delays yarn breakage by dis- which resulted in a higher SEA as the wrapped impactor presented
tributing the maximum stress along the periphery of the projectile- a larger impact area.
fabric contact zone, and this substantially increases the fabric en- High impact velocity sharp-edged projectiles can penetrate fab-
ergy absorption during later stages of the impact 关44兴. Interply ric targets by shearing yarns across their thickness 关40,61,83,157兴.
friction is also a source of energy dissipation in multiply systems According to Lim et al. 关40兴, the V50 velocity for Twaron CT716
and needs to be accounted for. double-ply fabrics decreases in the following order of projectile
4.4 Target Radius and Gripping Conditions. A longer yarn shape: hemispherical, flat, ogival, and conical. Tan et al. 关39兴 ob-
absorbs more deformational energy prior to failure than a shorter served in their study of plain weave single-ply Twaron CT716
yarn. However, the strain-to-failure ratio for a shorter yarn is fabric that conical and ogival projectiles perforated the fabric with
greater than that for a longer yarn 关66兴. The bigger the target the least amount of pullout, flat-headed projectiles sheared
fabric area is, the more will be the energy absorbed, provided through the yarn thickness, and hemispherical projectiles pro-
duced the most yarn pullout. The force required for nylon or Kev-
other parameters remain the same and the impact velocity is be-
lar yarn failure is lesser for a rectangular leading surface than for
low the critical velocity. When the impact velocity exceeds the
a chisel-shaped leading surface 关120兴.
critical velocity, only a small area in and around the impact zone
Shahkarami et al. 关90兴 numerically investigated the effect of
is responsible for energy absorption and, correspondingly, all the projectile mass on energy absorption and identified three distinct
strain is concentrated in that region. Thus, the size of the target regions in the plot of energy absorbed by a fabric versus striking
fabric area will not influence the energy dissipation in high veloc- velocity. Zone I corresponded to the subcritical region where the
ity impacts. projectile was completely arrested by the target. Zone II is char-
The target boundary conditions play a significant role in ballis- acterized by global deformation and strain energy buildup preced-
tic effectiveness. There is very little literature that actually studies ing the deformation. In Zone III, the projectile loses a very small
the role of target boundary conditions. Shockey et al. 关67兴 ob- portion of its incident energy, and failure is highly localized to the
served that fabric gripped on two edges absorbs significantly more yarns at the impact area 关90兴.
energy than identical fabric gripped on four edges. The amount
was about 25%–60% more for Zylon and almost double for Spec- 5.2 Impact Velocity and Strain Rate. At lower impact ve-
tra. This was attributed to the transferring of load from impacted locities of fabric targets, yarn failure occurs preferentially as in-
to adjacent nonimpacted yarns and the triggering of remote yarn termolecular slippage or secondary bond failure 关158兴, also called
failure, which is a higher energy-absorbing mode of failure. Fabric failure due to shear. Also, fabric failure due to yarn pullout be-
comes more predominant. At low impact velocities, the transverse
gripped on four corners was found to absorb the most energy of
deflection of the fabric has time to propagate to boundaries of the
all gripping conditions. In addition to remote yarn failure, an ad-
fabric, thereby involving more fabric area in the energy absorp-
ditional mode of failure, corner-hole failure, was observed for tion, leading to increased energy dissipation. Low velocity im-
fabric gripped on four corners 关67兴. However, the rate at which the pacts are characterized by excessive creasing and stretching.
impact velocity of the FSP is reduced will vary according to the Stress-strain curves obtained in Refs. 关70,71兴 showed the strain
boundary conditions, especially initially and then after the first rate sensitivity of the mechanical properties of Kevlar 49 fibers.
modes of failure occur. They observed that the initial elastic modulus, strength, and fail-
Zeng et al. 关153兴 observed that for fabric gripped on four edges, ure strain increase with increasing strain rate. At high impact ve-
greater energy was absorbed when the yarns were oriented at locities of fabric targets, yarn failure occurs preferentially through
45 deg to the edges than when the yarns were parallel to the primary bond failure as the yarns stiffen according to their vis-
edges, as the entire fabric was involved in the energy dissipation. coelastic behavior. Damage becomes localized to the immediate
Shin et al. 关119兴 observed that yarn pretension in a fabric serves to area around the point of impact, and the transverse deflection of
induce failure at an earlier instance and also reduce the cut energy the fabric is minimal. Carr 关134兴 observed that during impact of
of the fabric. single Kevlar and UHMWPE yarn at high velocities, the yarn
failed in shear.
4.5 Temperature. The initial elastic modulus, strength, and
failure strain increases with increasing strain rate for a constant 5.3 Projectile Impact Trajectory. The projectile impact tra-
temperature, and the initial elastic modulus decreases and failure jectory involves the angle at which the projectile strikes the plane
strain increases with increasing test temperature for a fixed strain of the fabric target and the motion characteristics, such as roll,
rate 关71兴. There was a 5% observed decrease in the ballistic per- yaw, and pitch of the projectile. Most studies do not incorporate
formance of UHMWPE panels shot in heated ovens when the these projectile parameters into the analysis and consider standard
panels were heated to 110° C 关154,155兴. Since fabrics are also cases of 90 deg angle of projectile impact, with impact velocity or
used in supersonic jet engine fan containment systems, their bal- initial projectile kinetic energy as the only projectile-parameter
listic performance must also be studied at elevated temperatures. input to the analysis.
Pereira et al. 关156兴 studied the ballistic impact fabrics composed 5.3.1 Angle of Incidence. At low impact speed and obliquity,
of PBO and Kevlar 29 fibers at elevated temperatures. They found there is a sliding of the projectile along the fabric surface, leading
that PBO absorbed significantly more energy than Kevlar at both to an additional mode of energy dissipation 关72兴, due to friction
room and elevated temperatures. However, after aging at tempera- between the projectile and fabric and possible entanglement of the
tures of 204° C 共400° F兲, PBO lost almost all of its energy- projectile with pulled out yarns., which in turn dissipates energy
absorbing capability, making it unsuitable for elevated tempera- as yarn pullout has to overcome warp yarn–weft yarn friction. For
ture applications. higher angles of incidence 共30 deg and 45 deg兲, a postperforation

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 deflection of the projectile is observed, which increases with im- spring are free to move according to spring stiffness Kb. Since
pact velocity 关72兴. For 90 deg or head-on impact, the frictional Ka ⬎ Kb, spring A remains rigid and spring B displaces preferen-
effect is limited to the projectile’s peripheral area in contact with tially. However, at higher strain rates, above the transition strain
the fabric through thickness, and there is no sliding of the projec- rate, the dashpot offers a resistance higher than the stiffness of
tile along the surface. In the studies of nylon and Kevlar KM2 spring A. Now, spring A moves preferentially compared to the
based armor systems, Cunniff 关79兴 observed that the V50 velocity dashpot-spring B assembly, which remains rigid. In reality, spring
is a monotonically increasing function of impact obliquity at A represents the primary or intramolecular covalent bonds of the
higher areal densities, accompanied by projectile tumbling during fiber microstructure, while spring B represents the secondary
penetration. bonds, which are the van der Waal forces and hydrogen bonds.
The failure associated with these bonds is discussed in later sec-
5.3.2 Roll/Yaw/Pitch of the Projectile. The roll angle is de- tions. The transition strain rate for Twaron CT716 was experimen-
fined as the angle between the warp yarn direction and the longest tally observed by Ref. 关38兴 to be 410 s−1. Based on their numeri-
dimension of the fragment’s impact end or blade direction. At a cal modeling, Ivanov and Tabiei 关99兴 observed the transition strain
45 deg roll angle with respect to the yarn orientation, for example, rate of 840 denier Kevlar 129 to be 100 s−1.
the impact end of a fragment will intersect and need to break
approximately 50% more yarns than at 0 deg to achieve penetra- 6.2 Basis of the Weibull Distribution. Gu used a Weibull
tion. In the penetration of a Zylon target gripped on two edges, distribution of yarn strength to describe the stress-strain response
approximately 80% more energy was absorbed for the 45 deg roll of Twaron fibers based on Refs. 关159,160兴. He used a two modal
angle than for the 0 deg roll angle 关67兴. At a 45 deg pitch or yaw Weibull distribution using the observation form 关161兴 that aramids
angle, a fragment presents more of a cross-sectional area to a have a distinct skin-core structure and that defects in the skin and
fabric than at a 0 deg pitch or yaw but may deflect some of these core are the two main factors that influence the yarn strength
yarns sideways, rather than break all of them, to achieve penetra- composed of filaments without twist. From this, Gu obtained the
tion. Also, the target, particularly a multiple-ply target, may rotate following constitutive relation:
the fragment during penetration, decreasing the hole size and re-
ducing the number of broken yarns on successive target plies 关65兴.
5.3.3 Point of Impact. When the projectile strikes the target
␴ = E␧ exp −冋冉 冊 冉 冊册
E␧
␴01
m1
−
E␧
␴02
m2
共4兲

fabric at the point of intersection of a warp and a weft yarn, the The scale 共m兲 and shape 共␴兲 parameters were calculated from
resistive force offered is greater than when the projectile strikes at tensile experimental data of yarn filaments 关17兴 with the
the gap formed between two adjacent parallel warp and weft Levenberg–Marquardt nonlinear least squares estimation method
yarns. In the latter case, if the presented impact area of the pro- 关162兴. Different constitutive relations were obtained based on the
jectile is small enough, the projectile will try to push the yarns strain rate. Wang and Xia 关70,71兴 also used a bimodal Weibull
aside and wedge through, resulting in decreased energy absorption statistical distribution model to describe the strain-rate depen-
by the yarns. dence of Kevlar 49 aramid fiber bundles for strain rates varying
from 10−4 s−1 to 103 s−1.
6 Constitutive Modeling of Yarn
The fibers used in the ballistic impact resistant fabrics are vis- 7 Failure Modes in Yarns and Fabric
coelastic. During their constitutive modeling, it is important to Failure modes in the filaments, yarns, and fabric can be ob-
account for their strain-rate sensitivity. Properties such as the elas- served at both the microscopic and the macroscopic level. The
tic modulus are dynamic and vary nonlinearly with strain. If static microscopic level involves failure through the breakage of bonds
values are used during the analysis of the ballistic impact of fab- that comprise the structure of the filaments, while at the macro-
rics, it will lead to certain inconsistencies between numerical and scopic level, failure can be observed through mechanisms such as
experimental results, as was observed in Ref. 关27兴. However, ac- yarn pullout and bowing.
ceptable results are still obtainable by simplifying the behavior of
yarns as elastic members. 7.1 Breakage of Bonds. Shim et al. 关24兴 described the break-
age of bonds that occurs in PPTA fibers, such as Twaron. Accord-
6.1 Basis of the Three-Element Spring-Dashpot Model. ing to the kinetic theory of fracture 关163兴, bond breakage occurs
Lim et al. 关38兴 and Ivanov and Tabiei 关99兴 used a three-element when it is excited beyond its activation energy. When the activa-
spring-dashpot model to represent the viscoelastic behavior of the tion energy or stress for a particular fracture mode is reached, the
Twaron fibers. Twaron fibers are very similar to Kevlar fibers as fracture mechanism is triggered. At room temperature, which is
both belong to the Aramid family and have identical static
above the glass transition temperature 共Tg兲 for PPTA and most
properties.
polymers, the activation stress for shear yielding and intermolecu-
The viscoelasticity exists as a property of all materials, but it is
significant at room temperature for polymeric materials mainly. lar slip 共␴y兲 becomes lower than the activation stress for brittle
The creep and the stress relaxation are the results of the viscoelas- fracture 共␴ f 兲; hence, polymers would be expected to fail via shear
tic behavior of materials. For impact simulations, we do not need yielding at room temperature 关24兴. However, Termonia et al. 关158兴
the long-term effects of the viscoelasticity, so that the material and Termonia and Smith 关163兴 observed the strong dependence of
behavior can be simply described by a combination of one Max- failure on the strain rate. At low strain rates 共about 0.01 s−1兲,
well element without the dashpot and one Kelvin–Voigt element. plastic deformation and intermolecular slippage involving the rup-
The differential equation of viscoelasticity can be derived from ture of secondary bonds occur in preference to primary bond
the model equilibrium in the form breakage. At higher strain rates 共about 1 s−1兲, both primary and
secondary bond breakages occur. Following this trend, Shim et al.
共Ka + Kb兲␴ + ␮b␴˙ = KaKb␧ + ␮bKa␧˙ 共3兲 关24兴 postulated that at much higher strain rates 共about 400 s−1兲,
primary bond breakage or brittle fracture will predominantly oc-
where ␴, ␧, and ␧˙ are the stress, strain, and strain rate, respec- cur. This was concluded based on the findings of Termonia and
tively. Constants Ka, Kb, and ␮b can be derived experimentally Smith 关163兴, who noted that the higher the strain rate, the shorter
and vary according to the material. the time interval a loaded bond spends at a particular stress level.
The principal behind the response of the fibers at different
strain rates is as follows. At low strain rate, below the transition 7.2 Local Yarn Rupture. Local yarn rupture occurs when all
strain rate, the dashpot offers little resistance as damping is pro- of a yarn’s fibers break apart at the same location, usually at the
portional to the velocity. The dashpot and parallel connected sharpest point of contact between the penetrator and the yarn. A

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 popping sound accompanies this failure along with a sudden drop 8 Concepts to Further Enhance the Ballistic Penetra-
in the measured load 关67兴. The two causes of yarn rupture are the tion Resistance of Woven Fabrics
stretching of yarns along their length and shearing across the
thickness 关40兴. The fibers in the yarn will fail when the induced Researchers are constantly looking toward the development of
strain crosses the failure strain. The failure strain is rate dependent new materials that have higher strength-to-weight ratio and supe-
and generally decreases with increase in strain rate. Simons et al. rior ballistic penetration resistance than the currently available
关164兴 described a method for modeling damage in finite element commercial materials, such as Kevlar, Zylon, and Twaron. Efforts
calculations during the ballistic impact of high strength fabrics. are also on to increase the strength of fabrics manufactured with
They assumed that the fibers were elastic until breakage and that available materials through new concepts and ideas. One popular
fibers break at a uniform rate in the strain range studied. Based on concept is the coating of yarns with certain chemicals that favor-
dynamic stress-strain curves of Twaron CT716, Shim et al. 关29兴 ably alter the frictional and tribological behavior of the yarn. Dis-
identified two response regimes for the variation of failure strain chler et al. 关167兴 coated fibers with a dry powder that exhibited
with strain rate. dilatant properties. The fabric exhibited a superior distribution of
ballistic energy compared to fibers that were not coated with this
7.3 Remote Yarn Failure. Remote yarn failure is when the powder. It was attributed to the increase in interfiber friction. Dis-
fibers within the yarn break at different points along the yarn’s chler 关168兴 also developed a coating ⬃2 ␮m thick, which, when
length and not necessarily at the point of impact. The break can applied to aramid fibers, increases yarn-yarn frictional coeffi-
occur anywhere between the impact point and the gripping bound- cients. Chitrangad et al. 关169兴 developed a fluorinated finish for
aries. The acoustic emission is also less distinct and is usually a aramids that increased the fiber-fiber friction as compared to the
softer hissing or rustling sound. During remote yarn failure, the standard finish used in aramid processing. Rebouillat 关170兴 stated
load on the penetrator will be maintained until the frictional forces that a processing finish was still required before coating aramids
on the yarns fall below the required values sustain the remote with a fluorocontaining finish, which served as a water repellant
failure 关67兴. agent 关7兴. This is supported by the studies of Bazhenov 关171兴, who
investigated the effect of water on the ballistic performance of a
7.4 Yarn Pullout. Yarn pullout occurs when none of the fi- rectangular laminate composed of 20 layers of Armos fabric. He
bers in a yarn break, but one end of the yarn is pulled out of the noted that water served as a lubricant that decreased friction be-
fabric mesh. This type of failure can only happen with ungripped tween the bullet and yarn and allowed the bullet to slip through
or loosely gripped yarns. The force required to pull a yarn out of the fabric by moving yarns laterally.
the mesh is the frictional force on the contact area between the Lee et al. 关172,173兴 studied the ballistic impact characteristics
yarn and all the intersecting perpendicular yarns. As the yarn is of Kevlar woven fabrics impregnated with a colloidal shear thick-
pulled out, the number of intersecting yarns decreases steadily, ening fluid. They reported an increase in the ballistic penetration
resulting in a gradual drop in the measured load 关67兴. Kirkwood resistance without the loss in flexibility of the impregnated Kevlar
and co-workers 关129,130兴 studied yarn pullout as a mechanism for fabric. At low strain rates, colloidal shear thickening fluids do not
dissipating ballistic impact energy in Kevlar KM2 fibers. The two offer much resistance to fabric deformation or bending; however,
main mechanisms associated with yarn pullout are yarn uncrimp- at higher strain rates, the fluid thickens, resulting in increased
ing and subsequent yarn translation. The pullout force was found resistance to ballistic perforation 关172兴. Sickinger and Herrmann
to be dependent on interyarn friction and yarn pretension. The 关174兴 described structural stitching as a method to develop high
yarn uncrimping energy is defined as the integral of the force- performance composites in the future. Chitrangad 关175兴 used a
displacement curve from the starting configuration to the peak combination of woven para-aramid fiber sheets and compressed
load point, and the yarn translation energy is defined as the inte- pulp sheets in the construction of a ballistic protection agent. The
gral of the force-displacement curve past the peak load point. The construction improved wearer comfort and flexibility while pro-
sum of the above two energies represents the total energy during viding the same level of ballistic protection.
pullout 关129兴. Chitrangad 关165兴 observed that aramid filaments Researchers are also looking toward using deflector plates in
maintained under tension improved the ballistic performance. En- fabric systems that would initially slow down projectiles by de-
ergy dissipation due to yarn pullout becomes a very significant flecting them sidewards and twisting them, and in certain cases
factor in low velocity impact of smaller target radii with un- even causing their leading edge to become blunt upon impact.
gripped yarns. Carbon nanotubes possess exceptional mechanical properties,
such as strength, stiffness, and resilience coupled with low density
7.5 Fibrillation. The splitting of fibers along their lengths or
关176兴. With the advent of nanotechnology, the inclusion of carbon
fibrillation is a damage mode favored by abrasive action across
nanotubes 共fullerene molecules兲 with the fabric material is being
the fiber length. In multiply systems, fabric-fabric friction results
investigated to drastically increase the strength and ballistic pen-
in abrasion perpendicular to the fiber axis. All projectiles that
etration resistance of the fabric.
possess capabilities of wedging through the fabric such as hemi-
spherical, ogival, and conical shapes cause a splitting of the fibers
that show no significant apparent differences from single-ply sys-
tems 关40兴. Martinez et al. 关157兴 stated that plucking or shagging is 9 Concluding Remarks
involved during a fabric-fabric abrasion and the severity depends
on contact pressure between the plies. This paper has reviewed the topic of ballistic impact of woven
fabrics, including mechanisms that affect ballistic performance,
7.6 Bowing. The misalignment of orthogonal yarns is also and well cited theoretical and experimental work conducted.
referred to as bowing. Lim et al. 关40兴 observed that bowing is Research into the ballistic impact of woven fabrics rapidly grew
more predominant in the back plies of a multiply system, where after the introduction of high-modulus and high-strength yarns in
the projectile tries to penetrate through a wedge-through approach the 1960s. Initial work was primarily experimental in nature and
after having been considerably slowed down by the initial plies. then took on an empirical approach. With the advent of high-
This wedge-through phenomenon has been observed by many re- speed computing, finite element techniques, and development of
searchers, including Montogomery et al. 关152兴, Kirkland et al. advanced commercial codes, coupled with advancements in pho-
关155兴, Shim et al. 关29兴, Prosser et al. 关61兴, and Lee et al. 关166兴. tography, microscopy, measurement, and material testing systems,
The existence of the wedge-through phenomenon is apparent the nature of research evolved to include more accurate numerical,
from the size of the hole formed in the fabric being smaller than micromechanical, and multiscale constitutive techniques that were
the diameter of the projectile and a fewer number of yarns being capable of capturing complex phenomena associated with the bal-
broken than the number of yarns that intersect the projectile 关7兴. listic impact of fabrics.

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 It is apparent that a considerable amount of work still needs to 关21兴 Naik, N. C. K., Shrorao, P., and Reddy, B. C. K., 2006, “Ballistic Impact
Behavior of Woven Fabric Composites; Formulation,” Int. J. Impact Eng., 32,
be done before the exact mechanics of fabric ballistic impact can pp. 1521–1552.
be understood and be replicated, especially interyarn, interply, and 关22兴 Backman, M. E., and Goldsmith, W., 1978, “The Mechanics of Penetration of
interfiber interactions and frictional effects. Approaches that uti- Projectiles Into Targets,” Int. J. Eng. Sci., 16, pp. 1–99.
lize shell elements to model the fabric are computationally effi- 关23兴 Cunniff, P. M., 1996, “A Semiempirical Model for the Ballistic Impact Perfor-
cient and reasonably accurate, but cannot adequately capture phe- mance of Textile-Based Composites,” Text. Res. J., 66, pp. 45–59.
关24兴 Shim, V. P. W., Lim, C. T., and Foo, K. J., 2001, “Dynamic Mechanical
nomena, such as yarn pullout, yarn failure, and interyarn frictional Properties of Fabric Armor,” Int. J. Impact Eng., 25, pp. 1–15.
effects. These effects can be captured by explicitly modeling each 关25兴 Gu, B., 2004, “Ballistic Penetration of Conically Cylindrical Steel Projectile
yarn with solid elements; however, this approach is limited by Into Plain-Woven Fabric Target: A Finite Element Simulation,” J. Compos.
today’s available computing power. Thus, there is some tradeoff in Mater., 38共22兲, pp. 2049–2074.
关26兴 Roylance, D., Chammas, P., and Ting, J., 1995, “Numerical Modeling of Fab-
every approach in terms of accuracy and the complex phenomena ric Impact,” Proceedings of the National Meeting of the American Society of
that it can capture. In spite of this, each approach is usually able to Mechanical Engineers (ASME), San Fransisco.
represent the ballistic impact of fabrics with acceptable accuracy. 关27兴 Roylance, D., and Wang, S. S., 1980, “Penetration Mechanics of Textile Struc-
It is important to note that almost all of the parameters that tures,” Ballistic Materials and Penetration Mechanics, R. C. Laible, ed., pp.
272–292.
affect the ballistic penetration resistance of a fabric are inter- 关28兴 Hearle, J. W. S., Leech, C. M., and Cork, C. R., 1981, “Ballistic Impact
related; thus studies that attempt to single out an individual effect Resistance of Multi-Layer Textile Fabrics,” Report No. AD-A128064.
cannot yield conclusive results unless all of the other parameters 关29兴 Shim, V. P. W., Tan, V. B. C., and Tay, T. E., 1995, “Modeling Deformation
are explicitly presented, and then various combinations of these and Damage Characteristics of Woven Fabric Under Small Projectile Impact,”
Int. J. Impact Eng., 16共4兲, pp. 585–605.
parameters are incorporated into the study before a fixed rule can 关30兴 Lomov, S. V., 1996, “Oblique High Velocity Impact on a Textile Woven Tar-
be ascertained. Unfortunately, this makes the study very compli- get: Mathematical Simulation,” Proceedings of Personal Armor System Sym-
cated. posium, Colchester, UK, pp. 145–156.
Cheeseman and Bogetti 关7兴 observed that there is research be- 关31兴 Johnson, G. R., Beissel, S. R., and Cunniff, P. M., 1999, “A Computational
Model for Fabric Subjected to Ballistic Impact,” Proceedings of the 18th In-
ing conducted, which is propriety work, and therefore does not ternational Symposium on Ballistics, San Antonio, TX.
appear in open literature. This may lead to certain significant ad- 关32兴 Teng, J. G., Chen, S. F., and Hu, J. L., 1999, “A Finite Volume Method for
vances and concepts being missed by academic researchers who Deformation Analysis of Woven Fabrics,” Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng., 46,
lean more toward technical journals as sources. pp. 2061–2098.
关33兴 Simons, J. W., Erlich, D. C., and Shockey, D. A., “Finite Element Design
Model for Ballistic Response of Woven Fabrics,” SRI International.
关34兴 D’Amato, E., 2001, “Finite Element Modeling of Textile Composites,” Com-
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关66兴 Shockey, D. A., Erlich, D. C., and Simons, J. W., 1999, “Improved Barriers to Influence of Twist on the Mechanical Properties of High-Performance Fiber
Turbine Engine Fragments: Interim Report II,” Report No. DOT/FAA/AR- Yarns,” J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 77, pp. 1938–1949.
99/8, II. 关98兴 Gasser, A., Boisee, P., and Hanklar, S., 2000, “Mechanical Behavior of Dry
关67兴 Shockey, D. A., Erlich, D. C., and Simons, J. W., 2004, “Improved Barriers to Fabric Reinforcements. 3D Simulations Versus Biaxial Tests,” Comput. Mater.
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99/8, III. 关99兴 Ivanov, I., and Tabiei, A., 2004, “Loosely Woven Fabric Model With Vis-
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 Professor Ala Tabiei has been with the department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
at the University of Cincinnati since September of 1995. He was the director of the Center of Excellence in
DYNA3D Analysis (1997–2001). He has a BS in Mechanical Engineering, a MS in Aeronautical Engineer-
ing, a MS in Mathematics, and a Ph.D. (1994) in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Cincinnati.
He has many years of crashworthiness and impact simulation experience using the finite element method at
the U.S. Department of Transportation and the automotive industry. His primary research focus is in the
area of nonlinear finite element applications and material model development for isotropic and composite
materials. He teaches several courses in linear and nonlinear static and impact dynamic finite elements at
the University of Cincinnati. He is a consultant to many companies in the U.S. and abroad on the use of
large-scale finite element for multiphysics simulations. Dr. Tabiei’s expertise is in the area of computational
mechanics and numerical simulation.

Mr. Gaurav Nilakantan did his schooling in National Public School, Bangalore and majored in PCM-
Computer Science. In 2003, he graduated with a Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering from
the PES Institute of Technology, part of Visveswaraiah Technological University, Karnataka India. In 2006,
he graduated with a Master of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Cincinnati,
OH, USA under the guidance of Professor Tabiei. He is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Materials Science and
Engineering at the University of Delaware.

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