Internship Report

June–July 2019

SIPL, LUCKNOW

Subject 2G, 3G and 4G RF Planning

Department Network Planning
Mentor Mr. Chandan Mishra

Submitted by:

Name and college

1
 Certificate

This is to certify that the project report entitled “2G, 3G and 4G RF Planning” is
a bona fide record of Seminar submitted by Name as the record of the work
carried out by him under my guidance. It is being accepted in fulfillment of the
Summer Internship, in the SIPL, Lucknow.

Mentor

Mr. Chandan Mishra Guide and

Trainer Network Planning

2
 Acknowledgement

Simply put, I could not have done this work without the lots of help I
received cheerfully from the whole of Idea. The work culture in Idea
really motivates. Everybody is such a friendly and cheerful companion
here thatwork stress is never comes in way.

I would also like to thank Mr. Pushpendra Singh for providing the nice
ideas to work upon. I am also highly indebted to my mentor Mr. Chandan
Mishra, who seemed to have solutions to all my problems.

3
 Abstract

There are 500 Million GSM users around the globe. GSM is the most widely used
network service.

This report covers the basics of GSM and related technologies and their architectures.
The concentration of this report is the Network Planning, how the GSM network is
planned, how site is surveyed and installed. Then the optimization of the network is
briefed.

Then our focus shift towards the evolving technologies and the architecture of 3G, 4G.

4
 Table of Contents

S Topic Page
No. No.
01 Introduction to GSM 7

02 Introduction to TDMA 9

03 Evolution of GSM 10

04 Open Interfaces in GSM 11

05 Registration and Databases 12

06 2G Network Architecture 15

07 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) 15

08 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) 21

09 Network Management System (NMS) 25

10 Channels 26

11 Access Technology and Modulation 30

12 GSM Frame Structure 33

13 Bursts 37

14 Signaling 38

15 OSI Model 45

16 Location Update 49

17 Call Set up in GSM 50

18 Handover 52

19 Charging 57

5
 S Topic Page
No. No.
20 Services 60

21 Problems in Air Interface 63

22 Abis 66

23 Multiplexing 67

24 Network Planning 69

25 Optimization 95

26 3rd Generation 101

27 3G Network Structure 107

28 3G Network Architecture 112

29 Differences between 2G and 3G 116

30 Cell Site Visit 117

6
 Introduction to GSM
What is GSM?

Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) is a standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe protocols for second generation (2G)
digital cellular networks used by mobile phones. It is the de facto global standard for mobile
communications with over 90% market share, and is available in over 219 countries and territories.

Originally, GSM stood for Groupe Spécial Mobile, a group formed by the Conference of European
Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) in 1982 to research the merits of a European standard for mobile
telecommunications. The GSM is now commonly known as Global System for Mobile.

The USA, South America, in general and Japan had made a decision to adopt other types of mobile
systems which are not compatible with GSM. However, in the USA the Personal Communication
System (PCS) has been adopted which uses GSM technology with a few variations.

The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular
networks as it was developed using TDMA technology.

Objectives of GSM
At that time, the objectives of the GSM network were-

 The system must be pan European

 The system must maintain a good speech quality

 The system must use radio frequencies as efficiently as possible

 The system must have high/adequate capacity

 The system must be compatible with other data communication specifications

 The system must contain good security concerning both subscriber and transmitted information

7
 Advantages of GSM

 uses radio frequencies efficiently

 new services offered compared to analog cellular systems

 quality of speech is better than analog systems

 encryption of speech

 international roaming possible

 lower prices due to competition

 The system must be pan European

GSM Phase II+ Features

With improvements in computing and radio access technology, GSM offered continuous
improvement and more services. In 1995 the “Phase 2” recommendations were frozen. The GSM
900 and GSM 1800 specifications were merged and additional supplementary services were
defined, the short message service was improved and improvements in radio access and SIM cards
were introduced.

After the Phase 2 recommendations, GSM continues to evolve at full speed. Many new features are
being introduced to GSM and the number of improvements is so large that together they are called
"Phase 2+" features.

 Support for dual band handsets

 High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD) services

 General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)

 Support for hierarchical cell structures

 Supplementary services support when roaming

 Enhanced full rate coding

 Enhancements to SMS

 Call line identity and restriction

8
 Call waiting

 Call hold

 Multi party communication

 Closed user groups

 Advice of charge

 Unstructured supplementary services for data for operator

 Operator determined barring

Introduction to TDMA
What is TDMA?

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared medium networks.
It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different
time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its own time slot.
This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium while using only a part of its
channel capacity.

Characteristics of TDMA

 Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users

 Non-continuous transmission makes handover simpler

 Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA

 Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference

 Pulsating power envelope: Interference with other devices

9
 Evolution of GSM

CEPT initiated a new cellular system. The European Commission (EC) issued a
1982 directive which required member states to reserve frequencies in the 900MHz
band for GSM to allow for roaming.
1985 CEPT made decision on time schedule and action plan.
1986 CEPT tested eight experimental systems in Paris.
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). Allocation of the
1987
frequencies.[890-915Uplink;935-960Downlink]
European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) was created includes
1988 members from administrations, industry and user groups.

1989 Final recommendations and specifications for GSM Phase 1.

Validation systems implemented and the 1st GSM World congress in
1990
Rome with 650 participants.
1991 First official call in the world with GSM on 1st July.
World’s first GSM network launched in Finland. By December there were 13
networks operating in 7 areas. New frequency allocation for GSM 1800 (DCS
1992 1800). [1710-1785 Uplink; 1805-1880 Downlink]

GSM demonstrated for the first time in Africa at Telkom '93 in Cape Town.
Roaming agreements between several operators are established. By December
1993 1993 there were32 GSM networks operating in 18areas.

The first GSM network in Africa was launched in South Africa. The GSM Phase 2
data/fax bearer services were launched. By December 1994 there were 69 GSM
1994 networks in operation. The GSM World Congress was held in Madrid with 1400
participants
There were 117 GSM networks operating around the world. Fax, data and SMS
1995 roaming was implemented. The first GSM 1900 network is implemented in the
USA.
1996 By December 1996 there were 120 GSM networks operating

10
 Open Interfaces in GSM
When an interface is open, it defines strictly what is happening through the interface and what
kind of functions must be implemented between the interfaces.

The two truly open interfaces are-

 between Mobile Station and Base Station, called Air Interface

 between Mobile Services Switching Centre and Base Station Controller, called A interface

Fig: Air Interface and A Interface

To prevent excessive load on a central system, intelligence is distributed throughout the

network by dividing the network into three separate subsystems-

 Network Switching Subsystem

 Base Station Subsystem

 Network Management Subsystem

The actual network needed for establishing calls is composed of the NSS and the BSS. The BSS
is responsible for radio path control and every call is connected through the BSS. The NSS takes
care of call control functions. Calls are always connected by and through the NSS. The NMS is the
operation and

11
 maintenance related part of the network and it is needed for the control of the whole GSM
network.

Mobile Station (MS)

Mobile Station (MS), or sometimes also called User Equipment (UE) is a combination of
terminal equipment and subscriber data. The subscriber data is stored in a separate module called
SIM (Subscriber Identity Module).

Registration and Databases

A connection through the mobile network is possible only if there is a point to point connection
between the caller and the person who is called. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary that the
network knows the subscriber’s location. The network keeps track of the subscribers’ location
with the help of various databases.

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

It is an integrated circuit that securely stores the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)
and the related key used to identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices
(such as mobile phones and computers).

It is –

 database inside the mobile

 contains user specificinformation

 identification number of the user

 list of subscribedservices

 list of availablenetworks

 tools for authentication and ciphering

12
 storage for messages and contacts

 PIN and PUKpasswords

Each SIM is internationally identified by its integrated circuit card identifier (ICCID). ICCIDs are
stored in the SIM cards and are also engraved or printed on the SIM card body during a process
called personalization.

The number is composed of the following subparts:

 Issuer Identification Number

 Individual account identification

 Check digit

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

It is used to identify the user of a cellular network and is a unique identification associated
with all cellular networks. It is stored as a 64 bit field and is sent by the phone to the network. It is
also used for acquiring other details of the mobile in the home location register (HLR) or as
locally copied in the visitor location register.

To prevent eavesdroppers identifying and tracking the subscriber on the radio interface, the
IMSI is sent as rarely as possible and a randomly generated TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity) is sent instead. TMSI is reallocated after every successful authentication verification.

IMSI is composed of the following subparts:

 Mobile Country Code (MCC)

 Mobile Network Code (MNC)

 Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN)

13
 Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number(MSISDN)

It is the number used for routing calls to the subscriber. MSISDN is the number normally dialed to
connect a call to the mobile phone. A SIM has a unique IMSI that does not change, while the
MSISDN can change in time, i.e. different MSISDNs can be associated with the SIM.

It is composed of the following subparts:

 Country Code (CC)

 National Destination Code (NDC)

 Subscriber Number (SN)

MSISDN is not used to identifying subscribers because-

 Country Code is of different length for different countries. A length indicator would be
needed.

 MSISDN identifies the service used. Therefore one subscriber would need several
MSISDNs depending on the type of services used.

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

The serving MSC/VLR generates a temporary MSRN and associates it with the IMSI. The roaming
number is used in initiating the connection and it has the following structure-

It has following subparts–

 Country Code (CC)

 National Destination Code (NDC)

 Subscriber Number (SN)

14
 2G Network Architecture
The GSM network is divided into three subsystems – Network Switching Subsystem (NSS),
Base Station Subsystem (BSS), and Network Management Subsystem (NMS). These three
subsystems, different network elements, form the GSM network architecture.

Fig: 2G NetworkArchitecture

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

NSS is the component of a GSM system that carries out call switching and mobility
management functions for mobile phones roaming on the network of base stations. It is owned
and deployed by mobile phone operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with
each other and telephones in the wider public switched telephone network (PSTN). The
architecture

15
contains specific features and functions which are needed because the phones are not fixed in
one location.

Elements of NSS

1. Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

2. Home Location Register(HLR)

3. Variable Location Register(VLR)

4. Authentication Center (AC)

5. Equipment Identity Register (EIP)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM, responsible for
routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services such as conference calls, FAX and circuit
switched data.

Fig: MSC

16
The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility and hand-over
requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time pre-paid account
monitoring.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC)

The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber who is
being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls
and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of
one call since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the Visited MSC function,
however, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any
BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls
they handle.

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone subscriber that is
authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several logical, and physical, HLRs per
public land mobile network (PLMN), though one international mobile subscriber identity
(IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several
physical nodes) at a time.

The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM has a
unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record.

Data stored include–

1. MSISDN Mobile Subscriber ISDNNumber

2. IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity

3. VLR address Current location of the Subscriber

4. Data Subscriber Data storedpermanently

17
Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The visitor location is a database of the subscribers who have roamed into the jurisdiction of the
MSC which it serves. Each main base station in the network is served by exactly one VLR, hence a
subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time.

The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the MS.
In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and,
where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface.
Whenever an MSC detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating a new record in the
VLR, it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber, apprising it of the new location of thatMS.

Data stored include–

1. IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity

2. LAC Location Area Code

3. Data Subscriber Data storedtemporarily

4. MSRN Mobile Station RoamingNumber

Authentication Center (AC)

The authentication center (AC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to
connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the
authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described
above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless
communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.

It is a procedure used in checking the validity and integrity of subscriber data. Proper
implementation of security in and around the AC is a key part of an operator's strategy to avoid
SIM cloning.

The authentication procedure is based on an identity key, Ki that is issued to each subscriber when
his data are established in the HLR. The authentication procedure verifies that the Ki is exactly the
same on the subscriber side as on the network side.

18
 Authentication is performed by the VLR at the beginning of every call establishment, location
update and call termination (at the called subscriber side).

In order to perform the authentication, the trick is to compare the Ki stored in the mobile with the
one stored in the network without actually having to transmit it over the radio air interface.

The GSM uses 3 algorithms for the purposes of authentication and ciphering. These are A3, A5,
and A8.

A3 – authentication A5
– ciphering
A8 – generating ciphering key

A3 and A8 are located in the SIM module and in the Authentication Center (AC). A5 is located
in the MS and in the BTS.

The mobile subscriber is created in the Authentication Center, before he starts to use the
security functions. The following information is required in creating the subscriber:

 IMSI of the subscriber

 Ki of the subscriber

 algorithm version used

The same information is also stored in the Mobile Subscriber's SIM. The basic principle of GSM
security functions is to compare the data stored by the network to the data stored in the
subscriber’s SIM. The IMSI number is the unique identification of the mobile subscriber. Ki is an
authentication key with a length of 32 hexadecimal digits. The algorithms A3 and A8 use these
digits as a basic value in authentication.

The Authentication Center generates information that can be used for all the security purposes
during one transaction. This information is called an Authentication Triplet.

19
 The authentication triplet consists of three numbers:

 RAND

 SRES

 Kc

RAND – RandomNumber
SRES – Signed Response is a result that A3 produces Kc –
Ciphering key that A8 generates

A certain RAND inserted to the algorithms with a certain Ki always produces a certain SRES and
a certain Kc.

When the VLR has this kind of three-value combination and the Mobile Subscriber
authentication procedure is initiated, the VLR sends the random number RAND through the BSS
to the SIM in the mobile station. As the SIM has (or it should have) exactly the same algorithms as
used in triplet generation on the network side, the RAND number that the SIM receives and inserts
to the algorithm should produce exactly the same SRES value as the one generated on the
network side.

The speech of the user and the ciphering key, Kc, are processed by the ciphering algorithm
(A5) which produces the coded speech signal.

Equipment Identity Register (EIP)

The equipment identityregister is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a list of mobile phones
(identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network or monitored. This is designed
to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones
should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR.

The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this function can be less
distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a database that contains information
about the identity of the mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or
defective mobile stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset attempts and store it in
a logfile.

20
 Functions of NSS

1. Call Control identifies subscriber, establishes call and clears after conversation
is over

2. Charging collects charging information about services used

and transfers it to Billing Center

3. Mobility maintains information about location of subscriber

Management

4. Signaling signaling with other networks and the BSS and PSTN

5. Data Handling permanent storage in HLR and variable data in VLR

6. Locating locates subscriber before establishing call

Subscriber

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone network
which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the
network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation
of radio channels to mobile phones, paging, transmission and reception over the air interface and
many other tasks related to the radio network.

Elements of BSS

 Base Transceiver Station(BTS)

 Base Station Controller(BSC)

 Transcoder (TC)

21
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving radio signals (transceivers),
antennas, and equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications with the base station
controller (BSC). Typically a BTS for anything other than a picocell will have several transceivers
(TRXs) which allow it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the
case of sectorised base stations).

A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function" (BCF). The BCF is
implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF
provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the network management system
(NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software handling and alarm
collection.

By using directional antennas on a base station, each pointing in different directions, it is possible
to sectorise the base station so that several different cells are served from the same location.
Typically these directional antennas have a beamwidth of 65 to 85 degrees. This increases the
traffic capacity of the base station (each frequency can carry eight voice channels) whilst not
greatly increasing the interference caused to neighboring cells (in any given direction, only a small
number of frequencies are being broadcast). Typically two antennas are used per sector, at
spacing of ten or more wavelengths apart. This allows the operator to overcome the effects of
fading due to physical phenomena such as multipath reception. Some amplification of the
received signal as it leaves the antenna is often used to preserve the balance between uplink
and downlink signal.

Picocell

A picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area, such as in-building
(offices, shopping malls, train stations, stock exchanges, etc.), or more recently in-aircraft. In
cellular networks, picocells are typically used to extend coverage to indoor areas where outdoor
signals do not reach well, or to add network capacity in areas with very dense phone usage, such
as train stations or stadiums. Picocells provide coverage and capacity in areas difficult or
expensive to reach using the more traditional macrocell approach.

22
Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC provides the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a BSC has tens or even hundreds of
BTSs under its control. The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements
from the mobile phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-
BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of the anchor MSC, from where
handover has been initiated). A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where
many different low capacity connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilization) become
reduced to a smaller number of connections towards the MSC.

Fig: BSC

The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies, frequency
hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border calculation, are stored in the
BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning engineering which involves modelling
of the signal propagation as well as traffic projections.

23
Transcoder (TC)

To enable the efficient transmission of the digital speech information over the radio Air Interface
the digital speech signal is compressed.

For transmission over the air interface, the speech signal is compressed by the MS to 13Kbits/s (Full
Rate) or 5.6Kbits/s (Half Rate). This compression algorithm is known as "Regular Pulse Excitation
with Long TermPrediction" (RPE-LTP).

However, the standard bit rate for speech in the PSTN is 64Kbits/s. Therefore, a converter has to be
provided in the network to change the bit rate from one to another. This is called Transcoder.

Functions of BSS

1. Radio Path BSS takes care of Radio resources like radio channel Control
allocation and quality of radio connection

2. BTS and TC BSCs maintain the BTS. BSC is capable of separating Control
BTS from network and collects alarm information
from BTS andTC.

3. Synchronization MSC synchronizes the BSC and BSC synchronizes BTS

associated with it. Synchronization is controlled by BSC inside
aBSS.

4. Interface Air and A interface signaling. MS must have a Signaling

connection throughthe BSS.

5. Connection b/w Connection may be of either signaling type or traffic MS and NSS
type.

6. Mobility Different cases of handovers

Management

7. Collection of Statistical Data is collected and sent to NMS for post Data
processing purposes.

A Base Station Subsystem is controlled by an MSC. Typically, one MSC contains

several BSSs. A BSS may consists of many cells.

24
Cell is area covered by one or more frequency resources. Each cell identified by Cell Global
Identity (CGI). It has following subparts –

 Mobile Country Code (MCC)

 Mobile Network Code (MNC)

 Location Area Code (LAC)

 Cell Identity (CI)

Paging

Paging is a signal that is transmitted by all the cells in the Location Area (LA). It contains the
identification of the subscriber. All the mobile stations in the LA receive the paging signal, but
only one of them recognizes the identification and answers to it. As a consequence of this
answer, a point to point connection is established.

Network Management System

(NMS)
Its purpose is to monitor various functions and elements of the network for slow and failing
components. These tasks are carried out by the NMS/2000 which consists of a number of Work
Stations, Servers and a Router which connects to a Data Communications Network (DCN).

The operator workstations are connected to the database and communication servers via a
Local Area Network (LAN). The database server stores the management information about the
network. The communications server takes care of the data communications between the
NMS and the equipment in the GSM network known as “Network Elements”.

These communications are carried over a Data Communications Network (DCN) which
connects to the NMS via a router. The DCN is normally implemented using an X.25 Packet
Switching Network.

25
Functions of NMS

1. Fault Management Its purpose is to ensure the smooth operation of the network and
rapid correction of any kind of problems that are detected. It provides the network
operator with information about the current status of alarm events and maintains a
history database of alarms.

2. Configuration Management It maintains up to date information about the

operation and configuration status of network elements. It includes management of
radio network, software and hardware management of the network elements, time
synchronization and security operations.

3. Performance Management NMS collects measurement data from individual

network elements and stores it in a database. On the basis of these data, the
network operator is able to compare the actual performance of the network with the
planned performance and detect both good and bad performance areas within the
network.

Channels
TDMA divides one radio frequency channel into consecutive periods of time, each one called a
"TDMA Frame". Each TDMA frame contains eight shorter periods of time known as “Time
Slots”. TDMA timeslots are called "Physical Channels" as they are used to physically move
information from one place to another.

The radio carrier signal between the MS and the BTS is divided into a continuousstream of
timeslotswhich inturn aretransmittedinacontinuous stream of TDMAframes.

When MS is turned on

1. The MS scans all the radio frequencies and measures them

2. It selects the frequency with the best quality and tunes to it

26
 3. With the help of synchronization signal in a TDMA Frame, the mobile synchronizes
itself to the network

Thesynchronization information requiredbythisprocess isbroadcast bythe network and

analyzed by the mobile.

In terms of Channels, when MS is turned on,

 Searches for BTS to connect to

 Scans entire frequency band or uses list containing the allocated carrier
frequencies for this operator

 Search for particular BCCH

And the BCCHcontains-

 Current LA identity

 Synchronization information

 Network identity

Without above information, a MS cannot work with a network. This information is

broadcasted at regular intervals, leading to term Broadcast Channels (BCH). All Broadcast
Channels are downlink, and point to multipoint.

1. FCCH- downlink, point tomultipoint

BTStransmitsacarrierfrequency.MSidentifiesBCCHcarrierbythe carrier
frequency and synchronizes with the frequency.

2. SCH- downlink, point tomultipoint

BTS transmits information about the TDMA frame structure in a cell and BTS identity (Base
Station Identity Code). MS synchronizes with the frame structure within a particularcell,
andensures that the chosen BTS is a GSM BTS. BSIC can only be decoded by an MS if the
BTS belongs to a GSM network.

27
 3. BCCH- downlink, point tomultipoint

BTS broadcasts some general information such as LAI, maximum output power allowed in
the cell and the identity of BCCH carriers for neighboring cells. MS receives LAI and
will signal to the network as part of the Location Update procedure. MS sets its output
power level based on the information received on the BCCH. The MS stores the list of
BCCH carrier frequencies on which RX level measurement is done for Handover
Decision.

When the MS has finished analyzing the information on a BCH, it then has all the information
required to work with a network. However, if it roams to another cell, it must repeat the
process of reading FCCH, SCH, and BCCH in the new cell.

If the mobile subscriber then wishes to make or receive a call, then Common
Control Channels must be used.

1. PCH- downlink, point topoint

BTS transmits a paging message to indicate an incoming call or short message. The
paging message contains the identity number of the mobile subscriber that the network
wishes to contact. At certain time intervals, MS listens to the PCH. If it identifies its own
mobile subscriber identity number on the PCH, it will respond.

2. RACH- uplink, point topoint

BTS receives access request from MS for call set-up, location update or SMS. MS answers
paging message on the RACH by requesting a signaling channel.

3. AGCH- downlink, point topoint

BTSassignsasignalingchannel(SDCCH)totheMS.MSreceives signaling
channel assignment(SDCCH).

At this stage, MS and BSS are ready to begin call set-up procedures. For this,
Dedicated Channels must be used.

28
 1. SDCCH- bi-link, point topoint

BTSswitchestotheassignedSDCCH,usedforcallset-upsignaling.TCH is assigned on
here. (SDCCH is also used for SMS messages to MS). The MS switches to the assigned
SDCCH. Call set-up is performed. The MS receives a TCH assignment information
(carrier and time slot).

2. CBCH- downlink, point tomultipoint

BTSusesthislogicalchanneltotransmitshortmessageservicecell broadcast. MS
receives cell broadcast messages.

3. SACCH- bi-link, point topoint

BTSinstructstheMSontheallowedtransmitterpowerandparameters for time advance.

SACCH is used for SMS during call. MS sends averaged measurements on its own
BTS (signal strength and quality) and neighboring BTS’s (signal strength). The MS
continues to use SACCH for this purpose during a call.

4. FACCH- bi-link, point topoint

BTS transmits handover information. MS transmits necessary handover information in

accessburst.

Once call set-up procedures have been completed on the control physical channel, the MS
tunes to a traffic physical channel. It uses the TCH logical channel. Types of Traffic
Channels-

1. Full Rate-

Transmits full rate speech (13Kb/s). It occupies one physical channel.

2. Half Rate-

Transmitshalf ratespeech (5.6Kb/s).Two HalfRateTCHcan shareone physical channel,

thus doubling the capacity of a cell.

29
Another form of traffic channel is the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) Traffic Channel. The
speech coding in EFR is still done at 13Kbits/s, but the coding mechanism is different than that
used for normal full rate traffic. Traffic channels can transmit both speech and data and are
bi-directional channels.

Call to a MS

1. The MSC/VLR knows which LA the MS is located in. A paging message is sent to the
BSC that is controlling the LA.

2. The BSC distribute the paging message to the BTS in the desired LA.The BTS transmits the
message over the Air interface using PCH.

3. When the MS detects a PCH identifying itself, it sends a request for a signaling
channel usingRACH.

4. The BSC uses AGCH to inform the MS of the signalling channel (SDCCH and SACCH)
touse.

5. SDCCH and SACCH are used for call set-up. A TCH is allocated and the SDCCH is
released.

6. The MS and BTS switch to the identified TCH frequency and time slot. The MS generates
ringtone. If the subscriber answers,the connection is established. During the call, signals
can be sent and received by the MS using SACCH.

Access Technology and Modulation

In a mobile communications network, part of the transmission connection uses a radio link
and another part uses 2Mbit/s PCM links.

Radio transmission is used between the Mobile Station and the Base Transceiver Station
and the information must to be adapted to be carried over 2Mbit/s PCM transmission through
the remainder of the network.

30
Frequency Ranges of-

GSM 900 Uplink Downlink 890MHz to 915MHz

935MHz to 960MHz

GSM 1800 Uplink Downlink 1710MHz to 1785MHz

1805MHz to 1880MHz

Uplink – MS to BTS
Downlink – BTS to MS

Difference between GSM-900 and GSM-1800

GSM 900 provides 124 RF channels (channels numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 KHz. Duplex
spacing of 45 MHz is used. Guard Bands 100 kHz wide are placed at either end of the range of
frequencies.

GSM1800provides374channels(channelsnumber512to885).Duplex spacing is 95MHz

.

Radio transmission is used between the Mobile Station and the Base Transceiver Station
and the information must to be adapted to be carried over 2Mbit/s PCM transmission through
the remainder of the network.

In GSM 900 the duplex frequency (the difference between uplink and downlink frequencies) is
45 MHz and in GSM 1800 it is 95 MHz

Thetotal numberofcarriers inGSM900 is124,whereasinGSM1800the number of carriers

is 374.

Digital transmission in GSM is implemented using two methods known as Frequency

Division Multiple Access (FDMA)and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA is a channel access method used in multiple-
access protocols as a channelization protocol. FDMA gives users an individual allocation of one
or several frequency bands, or channels. FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal.
Each user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a unique frequency
slots.

31
Crosstalk may cause interference among frequencies and disrupt the transmission.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In the GSM system, the synchronization of the mobile phones is achieved by sending timing
advance commands from the base station which instructs the mobile phone to transmit earlier and
by how much. This compensates for the propagation delay resulting from the light speed velocity
of radio waves. The mobile phone is not allowed to transmit for its entire time slot, but there is a
guard interval at the end of each time slot. As the transmission moves into the guard period, the
mobile network adjusts the timing advance to synchronize the transmission.

Initial synchronization of a phone requires even more care. Before a mobile transmits there is no
way to actually know the offset required. For this reason, an entire time slot has to be dedicated to
mobiles attempting to contact the network (known as the RACH in GSM).

The mobile attempts to broadcast at the beginning of the time slot, as received from the
network. If the mobile is located next to the base station, there will be no time delay and this will
succeed. If, however, the mobile phone is at just less than 35 km from the base station, the
time delay will mean the mobile's broadcast arrives at the very end of the time slot. In that case,
the mobile will be instructed to broadcast its messages starting nearly a whole time slot earlier
than would be expected otherwise. Finally, if the mobile is beyond the 35 km cell range in
GSM, then the RACH will arrive in a neighbouring time slot and be ignored.

It is this feature, rather than limitations of power, that limits the range of a GSM cell to 35 km when
no special extension techniques are used. By changing the synchronization between the
uplink and downlink at the base station, however, this limitation can be overcome.

Each timeslot on a TDMA frame is called a Physical Channel. There are 8 physical channels
per carrier frequency in GSM.

32
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

GSM uses a phase modulation technique over the air interface known as Gaussian Minimum
Shift Keying (GMSK).

In digital communication, Gaussian minimum shift keying or GMSK is a continuous-phase

frequency-shift keying modulation scheme. It is similar to standardminimum-shift keying (MSK);
however the digital data stream is first shaped with a Gaussian filter before being applied to a
frequency modulator. This has the advantage of reducing sideband power, which in turn
reduces out-of-band interference between signal carriers in adjacent frequency channels.
However, the Gaussian filter increases the modulation memory in the system and causes inter
symbol interference, making it more difficult to differentiate between different transmitted
data values and requiring more complex channel equalization algorithms such as an adaptive
equalizer at the receiver. GMSK has high spectral efficiency, but it needs a higher power level
than QPSK, for instance, in order to reliably transmit the same amount ofdata.

The radio air interface has to cope with many problems such as variable signal strength due
to the presence of obstacles along the way, radio frequencies reflecting from buildings,
mountains etc. with different relative time delays and interference from other radio sources.
With such levels of interference, complex equalization techniques are required with GMSK.

GSM Frame Structure

Two types of Multi Frames –

 26 TDMA frame multi frame – used to carry TCH, SACCH, and FACCH

 51 TDMA frame multi frame – used to carry BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH, and SACCH.

SDCCH is divided into 8 groups D0-D7 so that it can serve 8 MS concurrently. A0-A7 are the
corresponding SAACH channel groups which are used for TX. Power Control, TA correction if
necessary while the MS is located in SDCCH.

TDMA with 8 basic physical channels per carrier. The carrier separation is 200 kHz. A physical
channel is therefore defined as a sequence of TDMA frames, a time slot number, and a
frequency hopping sequence.

33
The longest recurrent time period of the structure is called hyperframe and has a duration of
12533.76 seconds.

1 hyperframe is divided into 2048 superframes which have a duration of 6.12 seconds.
Superframe is divided into multiframes. 1 superframe has 1326 TDMA frames.

There are four types of multi frames-

 26 - multiframe (51 per superframe) with a duration of 120ms, comprising

of 26 TDMA frames.

 51- multiframe (26 per superframe) with a duration of 235.

 52 – multiframe (25.5 per superframe)

Duration of oneslot =576.92 us

Duration of oneframe =4.61 ms [4.61 /8]
Duration of one 26-multiframe =120 ms [26 * 4.16]
Duration of one 51-multiframe =235.38 ms [51 * 4.16]
Duration of one Superframe =6.12 s [51 * 120]
Duration of oneHyperframe =12533.76 s [6.12*2048]

Fig: Channel Configuration

34
 • Multi-frame is used for distribution of logical channels

• Super-frame is used for Mobile synchronization

• Hyper-frame is used for signaling procedures and Ciphering

Fig: 26 Frame Traffic Channel Multiframe

The 12th frame (no. 13) in the 26-frame traffic channel multi-frame is used by the Slow Associated
Control Channel (SACCH) which carries link control information to and from the MS–BTS.
Each timeslot in a cell allocated to traffic channel usage will follow this format, that is, 12 bursts of
traffic, 1 burst of SACCH, 12 bursts of traffic and 1 idle.

35
The duration of a 26-frame traffic channel multi-frame is 120ms (26 TDMA frames) .When
half rate is used, each frame of the 26-frame traffic channel multi-frame allocated for traffic will
now carry two MS subscriber calls (the data rate for each MS is halved over the air interface).
Although the data rate for traffic is halved, each MS still requires the same amount of SACCH
informationtobetransmitted,thereforeframe 12WILLBEUSEDasSACCH for one half of the MSs
and the others will use it as their IDLE frame, and the same applies for frame 25, this will be used by
the MSs for SACCH (those who used frame 12 as IDLE) and the other half will use it as their IDLE
frame.

Fig: 51 Frame Control Channel Multi-frames

36
The 51-frame structure used for control channels is considerably more complex than the 26-
frame structure used for the traffic channels. The 51- frame structure occurs in several forms,
depending on the type of control channel and the network provider’s requirements.

Bursts
Types of Bursts

1. Normal
Used to carry information on traffic and control channels.

2. Frequency Correction
Used for frequency synchronization of the mobile.

3. Synchronization
Used for frame synchronization of the mobile.

4. Access
Used for Random and Handover access.

5. Dummy
Used when no other channel requires a burst to be sent and carries no information.

Bursts Used

 FrequencyCorrection Burst FCCH

 Synchronization Burst SCH

 Access Burst FACCH and RACH

 NormalBurst All Others

37
 Signaling
Signaling in telecommunication systems is basically a set of messages used for setting up,
supervising and clearing the call.

Functions of Signaling

 To set up a call

 To supervise acall

 To clear acall

Due to differences in signaling standards, the international governing body for

telecommunications, ITU, recommended the Channel Associated Signaling System (CAS)
as the standard.

Drawbacks of CAS

 Suitable only for the cases where traffic is low

 Not possible to send signaling in the absence of a call

 Wastes bandwidth

Common Channel Signaling

The ITU came up with a new recommendation which was the Common Channel Signaling
System Number 7, abbreviated as SS7.

SS7 is a Common Channel Signaling System with a signaling path bandwidth of 64Kbit/s. It is
modular in design although the modules are not as clearly defined as is the case with the OSI 7-layer
model, which its pre-dates.

38
It consists of two parts- first part was responsible for transferring the message within a signaling
network and the second part was the user of these messages.

 Message Transfer Part (MPT) – responsible for transferring messages

 Telephone User Part (TUP) – user of messages

Message Transfer Part (MTP)

TheentireSS7 isbuilton thefoundation ofthis MTPwhich consistsofthreesub- layers.

Layer 1 Physical Connections

Lowest Level defines physical and electrical characteristics

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Mid-Level helps in error free transmission of signaling messages between
adjacent elements

Layer 3 Signaling Message Handling

Highest Level responsible for taking the message from any element in a signaling
network to any other element within the same network

Fig: MTP Layers

39
Telephone User Part (TUP)

User who receives, sends, and acts on these messages.

Small variations in messages within one country were allowed, which were now called
National User Part (NUP).
With the introduction of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), which has a broader
capability than the PSTN, some extra sets of messages were required. These became known as the
ISDN User Part (ISUP). Whether it’s TUP, NUP or ISUP they are all doing the same job in helping
to set up a call.

Fig: Protocol stack of MTP and TUP/NUP/ISUP

Signaling Connection and Control Part (SCCP)

It was realized that the TUP/MTP combination alone was not sufficient when "virtual
connections" became necessary. MTP guarantees the transfer of messages from any
"signaling point" in the signalingnetwork to any other "signaling point", safely and reliably.

But each message could reach the destination signaling point by using different paths. This
may cause situations where the order of messages that are received, are different from the
original sequence. When this order is important, there is need for establishing a "virtual
connection".
Virtual Connections use a "Connection Oriented" protocol that will provide sequence numbers
to enable the messages to be placed in the correct order at the distant end.

40
MTP is capable of routing a message within one network only. The case of setting up a call
across multiple networks is not the same as signaling across the same network. The signaling goes
leg by leg according to the call. But in the absence of a call, MTP cannot route a signaling message
across multiple networks.

Solution to aboveproblems-

Creation of another protocol layer on top of MTP which was called the Signaling
Connection and Control Part (SCCP). SCCP takes care of virtual connections and
connectionlesssignaling.

TUP and SCCP both use services of MTP and hence parallel to each other. At the moment

there is no other protocol in SS7 for PSTN exchanges.

Fig: Location ofSCCP

Other Applications of SS7 in GSM

A continuous tracking of the mobile station is required which results in what is known as the
Location Update procedure. Additional sets of standard messages are required to fulfil the
signaling requirements of GSM networks.

41
The additional protocol layers are-

1. Base Station Subsystem Application Part (BSSAP)

2. Mobile Application Part (MAP)

3. Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)

Base Station Subsystem Application Part (BSSAP)

It is used when an MSC communicates with the BSC and the MS. Since the MS and MSC have to
communicate via the BSC, there must be a virtual connection, therefore the service of SCCP is
also needed.
The authentication verification procedure and assigning a new TMSI all take place with the
standard sets of messages of BSSAP. Communication between MSC and BSC also uses the
BSSAP protocol layer.

Therefore, BSSAP serves two purposes-

 MSC-BSC signaling

 MSC-MS signaling

Fig: Location of BSSAP in SS7

42
Mobile Application Part (MAP)

While a mobile terminated call is being handled, the MSRN has to be requested from the HLR
without routing the call to HLR. Therefore, for these cases another protocol layer was added to the
SS7 called Mobile Application Part (MAP). MAP is used for signaling communication between
NSS elements.

The MSC-MSC communication using MAP is used only in case of non-call- related
signaling. For routing a call from one MSC to another MSC, TUP or ISUP is stillused.

Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)

In MAP signaling, one MSC sends a message to an HLR, and that message requests (or invokes)
a certain result. The HLR sends the result back, which may be the final result or some other
messages might also follow (or it might not be the last result). These invocations and results that
are sent back and forth between multiple elements using MAP need some sort of secretary to
manage thetransactions. This secretaryis called the Transaction Capabilities Application Part
(TCAP).

Fig: MAP and TCAP

43
 Protocol Name Function
ResponsiblefortransferringanSS7 message
from one network element to another within the
MTP Message Transfer Part
same signaling network

User parts of MTP. They send, receive, analyze and

TUP Telephone User Part act on the messages delivered by MTP. All of
NUP National User Part ISDN these are Call Control Messages that help in setting
ISUP User Part up, supervising and clearing a call

Protocol layer responsible for making virtual

Signaling Connection and connections and making connectionless
SCCP
Control Part signaling across multiple signaling networks

Protocol layer responsible for communicating

BaseStationSubsystem
BSSAP GSM specific messages between MSC & BSC,
Application Part
and MSC & MS
A GSM specific protocol for non-call- related
Mobile Application Part
MAP applications between NSS elements

Protocol layer responsible for providing service to

Transaction
MAP by handling the MAP transaction
TCAP Capabilities
messagesbetweenmultiple elements.
Application Part

SS7 Requirements for individual GSM elements

 Protocol Stack inMSC

The MSC is the element in GSM networks which is responsible for call control, therefore,
TUP/ISUP sits on top of MTP for that purpose. The MSC/VLR is also responsible for
location updates and communication with the BSC and the HLR. For this reason, it also
needs to have BSSAP and MAP which sit on top of SCCP. The MSC also has TCAP to
provide services for MAP. It can be seen therefore, the MSC/VLR has all the SS7 protocol
stacks implemented in it.

 Protocol Stack inHLR

MTP, SCCP, TCAP and MAP as the signaling protocols in the HLR.

44
  Protocol Stack inBSC
The BSC only needs BSSAP, but since BSSAP needs the services of the SCCP which in
turn needs the MTP, the BSC contains MTP, SCCP and BSSAP.

Other Signaling Protocols in GSM

Between the BSC and the BTS, a signaling protocol is used known as LAP-D (Link Access
Procedure for the ISDN "D" channel).This is the same protocol that is used in ISDN networks
between the customer and the network.

Between the mobile station and the BTS, the same signaling protocol is used with small
modifications to cope with the characteristics of the radio transmission medium. This
protocol is known as LAP-Dm where the "m" denotes modified.

The LAP-D message structure is similar to SS#7 but it does not support networking capabilities,
therefore, it is used for point to point connections.

Protocols for Radio Resource (RR) management are passed using LAP-Dm and LAP-D. Other
protocols for Mobility Management (MM) and Connection Management (CM) are passed
between the Mobile Station and the MSC.

A Virtual Connection uses packet type switching principles and the connection only exists
when packets or messages are being transferred. In the simplest form of packet switching each
packet is regarded as a complete transaction in itself. This is known as “Connectionless”
mode as there is no sense of a connection being set up before communication begins and the
network treats each packet independently.

Open Systems Interconnection

Model (OSI Model)
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the internal functions of a communication system by partitioning it into
abstraction layers.

45
The model groups communication functions into seven logical layers. A layer serves the layer
above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free
communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls
the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of that path. Two
instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal connection on that layer.

Fig: OSI Model

a) Physical Layer

 It defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It

defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium
(e.g., a copper or fiber optical cable). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line
impedance, cable specifications, signal timing, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host
bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more.

 It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two

directly connected nodes over a communications medium.

 It may define the protocol for flow control.

 It defines a protocol for the provision of a (not necessarily reliable) connection

between two directly connected nodes, and the modulation or conversion between the
representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted
over the

46
 physical communications channel. This channel can involve physical cabling (such as
copper and optical fiber) or a wireless radio link.

b) Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides a reliable link between two directly connected nodes,
by detecting and possibly correcting errors that may occur in the physical layer.

The data link layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for controlling how computers in
the network gain access to data and permission to transmit it.

 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - control error checking and packet
synchronization.

c) Network Layer

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected to
the same network. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on
which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer
messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message
and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver
("route") the message to the destination node.

d) Transport Layer

The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host via oneor more
networks, while maintaining the quality of service functions.

The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/DE segmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and
connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments
and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of
the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors

47
 occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the
application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing the long message into smaller
messages.

e) Session Layer

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It

establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote
application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and
establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The
OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a
property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing
and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet ProtocolSuite.Thesessionlayeris
commonlyimplementedexplicitlyin application environments that use remote
procedure calls.

f) Presentation Layer

The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the
application-layer entities mayuse different syntax and semantics if the presentation
service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation
service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down
the TCP/IP stack.

This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by

translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer
transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and
encrypts data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer

g) Application Layer

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions
typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource
availability, and synchronizing communication.
When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit. When determining resource

48
 availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network or the
requested communication exists.

Location Update
MS constantly receives information sent bythe network, which includes ID of VLR address of
current area. MS stores that ID. Every time ID is broadcasted, MS compares the ID stored with the
new ID. Whenever there is a change, MS sends a registration enquiry to the area it has just
entered. The network registers the MS in new VLR area and the HLR is informed about the new
VLR address.

There are 3 types of location updates-

 location registration

 generic

 periodic

Location Registration takes place when MS is turned on. It is also called IMSI attach because as soon
as MS turns on, it informs VLR that it is back in service. As a result, network sends MS LAI (Location
Area Identity Number) and TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity Number). TMSI is
transmitted so that IMSI is not transmitted over Air Interface for security reasons.

Generic location update is performed if the stored LAI is different from the received LAI (MS
keeps receiving data through control channels). The MS starts a Location Update process by
accessing the MSC/VLR that sent the location data. A channel request message is sent that
contains the subscriber identity and LAI stored in SIM card.

When the target MSC/VLR receives the request, it reads the old LAI which identifies the
MSC/VLR that has served the mobile phone up to this point. A signaling connection is
established between the two MSC/VLRs and the subscriber’s IMSI is transferred from the old
MSC to the new MSC. Using this IMSI, the new MSC requests the subscriber data from the HLR
and then updates the VLR and HLR after successful authentication.

49
Periodic Location Update carried out when network does not receive any location update
from the MS in specified time. If the subscriber is moving within a single location area, there is
no need to send a location update request.

The network broadcasts the timer value so that a MS knows the periodic location update
timer values. Therefore, when the set time is up, the MS initiates a registration process by
sending a location update request signal. The VLR receives the request and confirms the
registration of the mobile in the same location area.

Locating the Subscriber

GMSC is connected to the serving MSC/VLR. Now we have to set-up connection to the
called subscriber. Since the exact location of the called subscriber is unknown, we have to
conduct an entire search in the MSC/VLR area unless area is divided into smaller areas. Therefore,
the MSC/VLR area is divided into smaller areas. These are called Location Areas (LA) and they
are managed by theMSC/VLR.

Each LA is identified by a Location Area Identity (LAI). Location Area Identity Code has
following subparts –

 Mobile Code Country (MCC)

 Mobile Network Code (MNC)

 Location Area Code (LAC)

Call Set-up in GSM

1. MSISDN is dialed.

2. PSTN analyzes MSISDN. Result of analysis is the routing information required to find
mobile network. Mobile network is identified on the basis of NDC, and then PSTN
accesses nearest GMSC.

3. GMSCanalyzesMSISDN.ResultofanalysisisthatGMSCobtainsHLR address of the

subscriber. GMSC sends MSISDN to HLR.

50
4. HLR determines current location of subscriber,as it has VLR address of the subscriber

5. HLR interrogates the MSC/VLR that is currently serving MS/Subscriber.

Interrogation is done instead of connecting right away so that-

 avoid setting call to a switched off MS

 we need to have information that enables the GMSC to route the call to the target
MSC.

6. The servicing MSC/VLR is the destination of the call-interms of routing. The servicing
MSC/VLR generates a temporary MSRN and associates it with the IMSI. This MSRN is
used in initiating the connection.

7. MSRNandMSISDNhavesamestructurebutusedfordifferentpurposes. MSISDN is used

for interrogating HLR whereas is the response given by the servicing MSC/VLR and is
used for routing the call.

MSRN-

 identify the subscriber

 points to exchange so that all intermediate exchanges know where the call isrouted

8. MSC/VLRsends MSRNtoHLR.HLRdoesnotinterrogatesMSRNbecause MSRN is

used for traffic transactions and HLR does not handle traffic. HLR forwards MSRN to
GMSC.

9. GMSC analyzes the MSRN. MSRN identifies the location of the called subscriber.
Result of this analysis is a routing information which identifies the destination of the call.

10. The final phase of the routing process is taken care of by the serving MSC/VLR. In fact,
the serving MSC/VLR also has to receive the roaming number so that it knows that this is
not a new call, but one that is going to terminate here – i.e. a call to which it has already
allocated an MSRN. By checking the VLR, it recognizes the number and so it is able to
trace the called subscriber

51
 11. To locate the subscriber, a Paging process is initiated in the Location Area. The mobile
phone of the called subscriber recognizes the paging signal and answersit.

Fig: Simplified Steps in Call Set-up

Handover
Handover or Handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from
one channel connected to the core network to another channel.

Purpose for handover

 when the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell and entering the
area covered by another cell the call is transferred to the second cell in order to avoid call
termination when the phone gets outside the range of the first cell

52
  when the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up and an existing
or new call from a phone, which is located in an area overlapped by another cell, is
transferred to that cell in order to free-up some capacity in the first cell for other users,
who can only be connected to that cell

 when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered by another phone using the
same channel in a different cell, the call is transferred to a different channel in the same
cell or to a different channel in another cell in order to avoid the interference

The decision to perform a handover is always made by the BSC that is currentlyservingthe
subscriber,exceptforthehandoverfortrafficreasons.In case of traffic reasons, the MSC takes
the decision.

Factors Determining Handovers

Reported by Mobile on SACCH uplink –

 RX Level Downlink

 RX Quality Downlink

Reported by BTS–

 RX Level Uplink

 RX Quality Uplink

 Timing Advance

Possible Additional Factors –

 BTS Load

 Recent Handovers

 Neighbor Priority

53
Timing advance

Timing advance value corresponds to the length of time a signal takes to reach the base station
from a MS. Each user transmits periodically for less than one-eighth of the time within one of the
eight timeslots. Since the users are at various distances from the base station and radio waves
travel at the finite speed of light, the precise arrival-time within the slot can be used by the base
station to determine the distance to the mobile phone. The time at which the phone is allowed to
transmit a burst of traffic within a timeslot must be adjusted accordingly to prevent collisions with
adjacent users. Timing Advance (TA) is the variable controlling this adjustment.

Types of Handovers

1. Intra Cell – Intra BSC

Subscriber is handed over to another traffic channel (generally in another frequency)

within the same cell. In this case the BSC controlling the cell makes the decision to
perform handover.

2. Inter Cell – Intra BSC

The subscriber moves from cell 1 to cell 2. In this case the handover process is controlled
by BSC. The traffic connection with cell 1 is released when the connection with cell 2 is
set up successfully.

3. Inter Cell – Inter BSC

The subscriber moves from cell 2 to cell 3, which is served by another BSC. In this case
the handover process is carried out by the MSC, but the decision to make the handover is
still done by the first BSC.

4. Inter MSC

The subscriber moves from a cell controlled by one MSC/VLR to a cell in the domain of
another MSC/VLR. The MSC/VLR currently serving the subscriber (also known as
the anchor MSC), contacts the target MSC/VLR and the traffic connection is
transferred to the target MSC/VLR. As both MSCs are part of the same network, the
connection is established smoothly. It is important to notice, however, that the target
MSC and the source MSC are two telephone exchanges. The call can be transferred
between two exchanges only if there is a telephone number identifying the target MSC.

54
Types of Handovers

Other classification of Handovers can be –

1. Preventive

 Improve call quality or minimize interference

 Power Budget – Based on Downlink Signal Levels

 Distance – Based on Timing Advance

2. Rescue

 Prevent dropped calls or poor-quality calls

 Level – Triggered by low signal on either downlink or uplink

 Quality – Triggered by poor quality on either downlink or uplink

3. Power Budget

 Based on downlink signal levels

 Uses power budget handover margin

 If neighbor is better than serving cell by more than the margin, initiate handover

 In a well performing system, most handovers will be caused by power budget

4. Distance

 Based on timingadvance

 Uses distance handover margin – can be negative

 If serving cell timing advance is greater than a set distance, and neighbor cell is
better than the serving cell by more than the margin, then initiate handover

 Distance handovers are not generally used extensively, as they can cause ping-
ponging

55
 5. Level

 Triggered by both uplink and downlink

 Uses level handover margin – generally set less than power budget margin

 If serving cell RX Level (uplink and downlink) is lower than a set value, and neighbor
cell is better than the serving cell by more than the margin, then initiatehandover

 Level handovers are intended to handover the call before the signal level gets so low
that quality is affected

6. Quality

 Triggered on both uplink and downlink

 Usesqualityhandover margin – generallyset lessthan level margin – can be negative

 If serving cell RX Quality (uplink and downlink) is lower than a set value, and neighbor
cell is better than the serving cell by more than the margin, then initiatehandover

 Quality handovers are intended to handover the call before the quality level gets so low
that the customer notices

Handover Strategy

Power Budget margin is set to 6dB Level

margin is set to 3dB
Quality margin is set to 0dB

In high signal areas, Power Budget is always looking for a handover, but the neighbor cell must be
must stronger than the serving cell for the handover to happen.

In low signal areas (worse than the level trigger), the neighbor cell only needs to be somewhat
stronger than the serving cell for the handover to happen.
In poor quality areas (worse than the quality trigger), the neighbor cell only needs to be as strong
as the serving cell for the handover to happen.

56
This structure allows different behavior in different without extensive optimization of each
individual cell.

Handover Number (HON)

The anchor MSC/VLR receives the handover information from the BSS. It recognizes that the
destination is within the domain of another MSC and sends a Handover Request to the target
MSC via the signaling network. The target MSC answers by generating a HON and sends it
to the anchor MSC/VLR, which performs a digit analysis in order to obtain the necessary
routinginformation.ThisinformationallowstheservingMSC/VLRtoconnect the target
MSC/VLR. When the two MSCs are connected, the call is transferred to a new route.

The Handover Number has following subparts –

 Country Code (CC)

 National Destination Code (NDC)

 Subscriber Number (SN)

Charging
In addition to a standard fee, subscribers have to pay for the calls they make and the services they
use. The actual charging practices vary considerably from one network operator to another.

1. Subscription Charge: To cover the costs of operations like receiving of SIM card,
recording of basic information to the HLR, network operators often charge the subscriber
an initial subscription charge.

2. Renting of Service: Subscriber is usually charged for the availability of the network services
and the right to use them. This is a regular fee which is charged irrespective of whether
the subscriber makes any calls or not.

57
 3. Charge for using Network: list of parameters that can be used as a basis for charging
the subscribers-

 type of service e.g. Speech, SMS

 duration of call

 time of day the call was made

 destination of call

 origin of call

 use of network e.g. the PSTN

 use of supplementary services like call barring, call forwarding

 use of radio services

 international roaming leg

Whom to Charge

If the called subscriber is registered in a location area belonging to his home network, the
connection is established as explained in the previous chapter and the calling subscriber pays for
the call.

If the called subscriber is outside the service area of his home network and is connected to another
network, then the call has to be routed to him using the services of one or more foreign networks.
In such a case, the charge will be shared according to the following principle-

 The calling subscriber pays for the connection to the number he dialed

 The called subscriber pays for the international roaming leg.

International Roaming Leg refers to the connection between the home network and subscriber
via a foreign network.

The same principle is applied when the mobile subscriber has forwarded incoming calls to
another number. The called subscriber pays for the forwarded call.

58
Collect call is the case in which the called subscriber pays for the call. In the Collect Call, called
subscriber has to accept the call, after which he is responsible for all the costs.

Charging Procedure

Charging is normally determined by collecting metering pulses, by which the exchange can calculate the
price of the call. It is called time charging.

The record containing the information about one chargeable event is called the charging record.
These records are stored primarily as charging files in the MSC or HLR and then transferred to a
separate billing center. The serving operator controls the entire charging process. The process
begins when a call is set up and at the same time, a charging record is opened in the serving
MSC/VLR. In general, the first and the last MSC involved in a call set up, collect the
chargingrecord.
When the subscriber moves and inter MSC handover is performed, the charging record is not
transferred to the new MSC during handover. Instead, first MSC keeps record of the call as long as
it lasts.

When a sufficient number of charging records have been accumulated, they are sent to a billing
center in one bulk via an X.25 or Ethernet connection.

Distributed Charging

In order to produce bills for each subscriber, Billing Centers should collect detailed charging
data from all the MSCs within the PLMN.

With International Roaming, this operation should be extended covering all the PLMNs where a
Roaming Contract is signed. Charging information must be collected from the Billing Centers
(BC) of all the networks that subscribers have been visited and passed to the Billing Center of the
home network.

When two GSM operators sign a “roaming contract”, they agree how often they will transfer
charging data between each other.

59
 Services
Services can be grouped as speech services, where the transmitted data is speech and data services
which covers the rest of the information types such as text, facsimile (fax), etc.

Services can also be grouped as-

 Basic Services which are individual functions and may be automatically available and
included in the basic rights of the subscriber as soon as he registers

 Supplementary Services which are extra services that are not included as basic features,
but are associated with the basic services by enhancing and/or adding extra features to
the basic services

When a user subscribes for more than one basic service, he will have a different MSISDN for
every basic service to which he subscribes.
Standard Classification ofServices-

 Teleservices which provide the full communication capacity by means of terminals and
network functions as well as those provided by dedicated centers

 Bearer Services which provide the capability of transmitting signals between a GSM
network access point and an appropriate access point in the terminating network

Speech and EmergencyCalls

These are the most common teleservices used in the GSM network. Speech is also the basic
service that each subscriber is guaranteed to. The normal security procedures apply to all such
calls except in the case of emergency calls which are processed regardless of possible
security violations.

60
Short Message Service (SMS)

TheShortMessage Service (SMS)isaservice enablingthe mobilesubscriber to receive and/or

send short (max. 160 characters) messages in text format.

This service requires a dedicated equipment called Short Message Service Center (SMSC)
which may be located in the NSS or outside the GSM network, but it always has signaling
connections to MSC. The SMSC acts as a temporary storing and forwarding center if the Mobile
Station is unreachable.

The tasks of an SMSC can be described as

1. Reception of text messages (SMS) from wireless network users

2. Storage of textmessages

3. Forwarding of

4. Delivery of text messages (SMS) to wireless network users

5. Maintenance of unique time stamps in text messages

When a user sends a text message (SMS message) to another user, the message gets stored
in the SMSC (short message service center) which delivers it to the destination user when
they are available. This is a store and forward option.

An SMS message is stored temporarily in the SMS center if the recipient mobile phone is
unavailable. It is possible on most mobile handset to specify an expiry period after which the
SMS message will be deleted from the SMS center.

The SMS sender needs to set a flag in the SMS message to notify the SMS center that he wants
the status report about the delivery of this SMS message. This status report is sent to the SMS
sender in the form of an SMS.

The services of SMSC are not required in cell broadcasting, as the BSC is equipped with the
necessary SMSC functions. The maximum length of a cell broadcast SMS is 93 characters.

61
Facsimile (Fax) Transmission

Facsimile transmission is a teleservice that sets requirements for terminal equipment and their
adaptation. There is one predefined case in which the Mobile Station needs to be interfaced with
a computer equipped with a fax modem. However, because it is used for data transmission, there
has to be a provision for the bearer service in order to define the characteristics of the bearer such
as data transmission rate and Air Interface error correction protocol.

InthecaseofT61Facsimile transmission,thereceiver iseithernot aware that the incoming call is

addressed to the fax and so he has to establish the nature of the call by talking with the calling
party first, or the receiver knows that it is a facsimile call but still wants to talk with the calling
party. In both cases, the nature of the transmitted information is data (group 3 facsimile) and
speech alternately (during the same call).

The T62 automatic facsimile is an automatic fax service where the receiver has a different
MSISDN for the fax service and all calls to this number are purely data transmissioncalls.

Supplementary Services

Supplementary services enhance or supplement the basic

telecommunication services.
 Advice of Charge

 Alternate Line Service

 Barring of all incoming calls

 Barring of all incoming calls when roaming outside the HPLMN

 Barring of incoming calls when abroad

 Barring of outgoingcalls

 Barring of outgoing International calls

 Barring of outgoing international calls excluding those directed to the HPLMN country

 Call forwarding on mobile subscriber busy

 Call forwarding on no answer

62
  Call forwarding unconditional

 Call Hold

 Call Waiting

 Calling line identificationpresentation

 Calling line identificationrestriction

 Conference call

 Explicit Call Transfer

 Operator Determined Barring

Problems in Air Interface

Multi path Propagation

It is quite rare that there is a direct "line of sight" transmission between the mobile station and the
base transceiver station. In the majority of cases, the signals arriving at the mobile station have
been reflected from various surfaces. Thus, a mobile station (and the base transceiver station)
receives the same signal more than once. Depending on the distance that the reflected signals
have travelled, they may affect the same information bit or corrupt successive bits.

Solutions to Multi path Propagation

1. Viterbi Equalization –

This is generally applicable for signals that have been reflected from far awayobjects.
WheneithertheBTSorMStransmitsuserinformation,the information contained in the
burst is not all user data. There are 26 bits which are designated for a "training sequence"
included in each TDMA burst transmitted. Both the MS and BTS know these bits and
by analyzing the effect the radio propagation on these training bits, the air interface is
mathematically modelled as a filter. Using this

63
 mathematical model, the transmitted bits are estimated based on the received bits. The
mathematical algorithm used for this purpose is called "Viterbi equalization".

2. Channel Coding –

Channel coding (and the following solutions) is normally used for overcoming the
problem caused by fading dips. In channel coding, the user data is coded using standard
algorithms. This coding is not for encryption but for error detection and correction
purposes and requires extra information to be added to the user data. In the case of speech,
the number of bits is increased from 260 per 20ms to 456 bits per 20ms. This gives the
possibility to regenerate up to 12.5% of data loss.

3. Interleaving –

Interleaving is the spreading of the coded speech into many bursts. By spreading the
information onto many bursts, we will be able to recover the data even if one burst is lost.
(Ciphering is also carried out for security reasons).

4. Frequency Hopping –

With Frequency Hopping, the frequency on which the information is transmitted is

changed for every burst. Frequency hopping generally does not significantly improve
the performance if there are less than four frequencies in the cell.

Call is transmitted through several frequencies in order to

• average the interference (interference diversity)

• minimize the impact of fading (frequency diversity)

5. Antenna Receiver Diversity–

In this case two physically separated antennas receive and process the same signal. This
helps to eliminate fading dips. If a fading dip occurs at the position of one antenna, the
other antenna will still be able to receive the signal. Since the distance between two
antennas is a few meters, it can only be implemented at the BTS.

64
Shadowing

Hills, buildings and other obstacles between antennas cause shadowing (also called Log Normal
Fading). Instead of reflecting the signal these obstacles attenuate the signal.

Shadowing is generally a problem in the uplink direction, because a BTS transmits

information at a much higher power compared to that from the MS.

Solution to Shadowing

The solution adopted to overcome this problem is known as adaptive power control. Based on
quality and strength of the received signal, the base station informs the mobile station to increase or
decrease the power as required. This information is sent in the Slow Associated Control Channel
(SACCH).

Propagation Delay

Information is sent in bursts from the mobile station to the Base Transceiver Station(BTS).These
burstshavetoarriveatthebasetransceiverstationsuch that they have to map exactly into their
allocated time slots. However, the further away the mobile station is from the BTS then the longer
it will take for the radio signal to travel over the air interface. This means that if the mobile station
or base station transmits a burst onlywhen the time slot appears, then when the burst arrives at the
other end, it will cross onto the time domain of the next timeslot, thereby corrupting data from both
sources. This problem is called Propagation Delay.

Solution to Propagation Delay

The solution used to overcome this problem is called "adaptive frame alignment". The Base
Transceiver Station measures the time delay from the received signal compared to the delay that
would come from a mobile station that was transmitting at zero distance from the Base
Transceiver Station. Based on this delay value, the Base Transceiver Station informs the mobile
station to either advance or retard the time alignment by sending the burst slightlybefore the actual
time slot. The base station also adopts this time alignment in the down link direction.

65
 Abis
Thetransmissionbetweentheothernetworkelements,inparticularfromBase Transceiver Station
to Base Station Controller (BSC) is called Abis.

Base Transceiver Station

It is physical site from where the radio transmission in both the downlink and uplink direction takes
place. The particular hardware element inside the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) responsible for
transmitting and receiving these radio frequenciesisappropriatelynamed"Transceiver(TRX)".
TheseTRXsarethen configured into one, two or three cells. If a BTS is configured as one cell it is
called an "Omnidirectional BTS" and if it is configured as either two or three cells it is called a
"Sectorized BTS". In an omnidirectional BTS the maximum numberofTRXsisten,andina
sectorized BTSthemaximumnumberofTRXsis four per sector.

Transmission between BSC and BTS

There are three alternative methods to provide the connections between a BSC and several
BTSs. There are three options available: point-to-point connection, multidrop chain and
multidrop loop.

Point to point connection indicates that the Base Station Controller (BSC) is connected directly to
every BTS with a 2Mbit/s PCM line. This is a simple and effective method particularly in cases
when the distance between BSC and BTS is short.

One PCM line has ample capacity to transfer data to several BTSs simultaneously.Therefore,
itispossibletodrawjustoneBSC -BTSconnection andlinktheBTSsasachain.Thistechniqueis
calledMultidropChain.TheBSC sends all the data in one 2Mbit/s PCM line and each BTS in
turn analyses the signal, collects the data from the correct timeslots assigned for itself and
passes the signal to the next BTS.

66
 Fig: BTS – BSC Connections

In Multidrop Loop, instead of a chain we connect the BTSs in the form of a loop. The flow of the
signal is similar to the signal flow in multidrop chain, except that a BTS will change the
“listening” direction if the signal from one side fails. This ensures that the BTSs always receive
information from the BSC even if the connection is cut off at some point in the loop.

Multiplexing
According to GSM 900 and GSM 1800 specification, the bit rate in the air interface is 13
Kbits/s and the bit rate at the Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC) and PSTN interface is 64
Kbits/s. This means that the bit rate has to be converted at some point after the signal has been
received by the BTS and before it is sent to other networks.

The actual hardware which does the conversion from 13 Kbps to 64 Kbps and vice versa is called a
transcoder. In theory this piece of equipment belongs to the Base Transceiver Station. However,
by putting the transcoder at a different place we can take some advantages in reducing the
transmission costs.

67
If the transcoder is placed at the BTS site (in the BSC interface), then the user data rate from BTS to
Base Station Controller (BSC) would be 64 Kbps. The transmission for this would be similar to
standard PCM line transmission with 30 channels per PCM cable. The same would also apply
between BSC and MSC.

If we put the transcoder somewhere else, say just after MSC, then also we cannot get significant
advantage. This is because although after transcoding the bit rate reduces to 13 kbps, we still have
to use the PCM structure to send the traffic channels, with 8 bits per time slot. However, since after
transcoding we have a bit rate of 13 Kbps and an additional 3 Kbps (making 16 Kbps) only
two bits per time slot will be used. The other 6 bits are effectively wasted.

Independent from its actual position, the transcoder belongs to the BSS even if it is placed next to
the MSC. (When the TC is placed away from the BTS it is called a Remote TC according to the
GSM recommendations).

We saw that from the MSC data comes out at 64Kbits/s rate and from the Transcoder it comes out
at 16Kbits/s. Each PCM channel (time slot) has 2 bits of information. It appears that we are able to
put in data from other 3 PCM lines also here bymultiplexing. However, there areother issues as
well such as Common Channel Signaling information, OMC data and some other network
information which cannot be transcoded. Thus, we are able to multiplex 3 PCM lines and
send 90 channels in one PCM line from MSC (transcoder)towardsthe BSC. The BSC is ableto
switch 2 bits per time slot (or 1 bit) to the correct direction.

Fig: Transcoder and Sub multiplexer

68
 Network Planning
A good geographical coverage is the basis for providing network services. Careful network
planning is thus a primary aspect of implementing GSM networks.

The goal is to achieve optimum use of resources and maximum revenue potentialwhilst
maintainingahighlevelofsystemquality. Fullconsideration must also be given to cost and
spectrum allocation limitations. A properly planned system should allow capacity to be
added economically when traffic demand increases.

By doing a proper RF Planning by keeping the future growth plan in mind we can reduce a lot of
problems that we may encounter in the future and also reduce substantially the cost of
optimization. On the other hand, a poorly planned network not only leads to many Network
problems, it also increases the optimization costs and still may not ensure the desired quality.
Requirements that must be taken into consideration in the early stages of the planning process:

1. Cost of building the network

2. Capacity of thenetwork

3. Coverage

4. Maximum congestion allowed

5. Quality of calls

6. Further development of the network

The main steps of a Network Planning process are as follows:

1. Collection of all relevant information such as topographical map and statistical books

2. Network Dimensioning based on coverage and capacity requirements

3. Selection of Base Station sites

4. Survey of intendedsites

69
 5. Use of computer aided design system for coverage prediction, interference
analysis and frequency planning

Site Survey

Awirelesssitesurvey,sometimescalledanRFsitesurveyorwirelesssurvey,is the process of

planning and designing a wireless network. The survey usually involves a site visit to test for RF
interference, and to identify optimum installation locations for access points.This requires
analysis of building floor plans, inspection of the facility, and use of site survey tools. Interviews with
IT management and the end users of the wireless network are also important to determine the
design parameters for the wireless network.

A radio frequency (RF) site survey is the first step in the deployment of a Wireless network
and the most important step to ensure desired operation. A sitesurveyisatask-by-taskprocessby
whichthesurveyorstudiesthefacilityto understand the RF behavior, discovers RF coverage
areas, checks for RF interference and determines the appropriate placement of Wireless devices.

Why Site Survey is done?

To provideawirelesssolution thatwill delivertherequiredwireless coverage, data rates, network

capacity, roaming capability and Quality of Service (QoS).

In a Wireless network, many issues can arise which can prevent the radio frequency(RF)
signal from reaching all parts of the facility. Examples of RF issues include multipath
distortion, hidden node problems, and near/far issues.

In order to address these, you need to find the regions where these issues occur. A site survey
helps you to do this. A site survey helps define the contours of RF coverage in a particular
facility. It helps us to discover regions where multipath distortion can occur, areas where RF
interference is high and find solutions to eliminate such issues. A site survey that determines the RF
coverage area in a facility also helps to choose the number of Wireless devices that a firm
needs to meet its business requirements.

70
How Site is surveyed?

Wireless site surveys are typicallyconductedusing computersoftware that collects and

analyses WLAN metrics and/or RF spectrum characteristics.
Before a survey, a floor plan or site map is imported into a site survey application and
calibrated to set scale. During a survey, a surveyor walks the facility with a portable computer
that continuously records the data. The surveyor either marks the current position on the floor
plan manually, by clicking on the floor plan, or uses a GPS receiver that automatically marks the
current position if the survey is conducted outdoors. After a survey, data analysisisperformed
andsurveyresultsaredocumentedinsitesurveyreports generated by theapplication.

All these data collection, analysis, and visualization tasks are highly automated in modern
software. In the past, however, these tasks required manual data recording and processing.

Types of Site Survey

Therearethreemaintypesofwirelesssitesurveys:passive,active,and predictive.

 During a passive survey, a site survey application passivelylistens to WLAN traffic to

detect active access points, measure signal strength and noise level. However, the
wireless adapter being used for a survey is not associated to any WLANs. For system
design purposes, one or more temporary access points are deployed to identify and
qualify access point locations. This used to be the most common method of pre-
deployment Wi-Fi survey.

 During an active survey, the wireless adapter is associated with one or several access
points to measure round-trip time, throughput rates, packet loss, and retransmissions.
Active surveys are used to troubleshoot WIFInetworksortoverifyperformancepost-
deployment.

 During a predictive survey, a model of the RF environment is created using simulation

tools. It isessential that thecorrect information on the environment is entered into the RF
modeling tool, including location and RF characteristics of barriers like walls or large
objects. Therefore, temporary access points or signal sources can be used to gather
information on propagation in the environment. Virtual access points are then placed on
the floor plan to estimate expected coverage and adjust their number and location. The
value of a predictive survey as a design tool versus a passive survey done with only a few
access points is that modeled interference can be taken into account in the design.

71
Depending on the survey type, a number of software and software/hardware options are available
to WLAN surveyors.

Software

Passive and active surveys are performed using software and typically require only a compatible
off-the-shelf Wi-Fi adapter; no additional specialized hardware is required. Predictive
surveys require no hardware at all, as no wireless data collection is needed. Currently,
professional-level site survey applications exist primarily for Microsoft Windows. Some site
survey applications for other platforms, including iOS and Android, also exist, however they
are limited in functionality due to the limitations of the underlying platform API. For example,
signal level measurements cannot be obtained on iOS without jailbreaking.

Hardware

Unlikepassiveandactivesurveys,RFspectrumsurveysrequirespecializedRF equipment. There

are various types of spectrum analyzers ranging from large and expensive bench-top units to
portable ("field units") and PC-based analyzers. Because portability is a decisive factor in
conducting wireless site surveys, PC-based spectrum analyzers in Card Bus and USB form factors
are widely used today. WLAN chipset manufacturers are starting to incorporate spectrum analysis
into their chipset designs; this functionality is integrated into some high-end enterprise-class
802.11n access points

After all the installation sites have been surveyed, a detailed network plan can be made. This
includes the design of a transmission network which is usuallysupplied by existing operators
(leased PCM lines), or by microwave links.

The radio environment has to be measured and tested to ensure its proper operation and
coverage after installation.

In sparsely populated areas we use powerful BTS’s which are usually mounted on high ground to
provide maximum unobstructed coverage to all directions. This type of BTS is called
Omnidirectional BTS.

In urban areas, where traffic volume is higher, the size of a cell is much smaller and the distance
between BTS’s is shorter. The standard type of BTS is also different: the cell is divided into three
sectors that have a few frequencies each. This is called Sectorized BTS.

72
Types of Towers –

1. Roof Top Tower(RTT)

Telecom service provider installs a cellular tower on the roof of a building, paying the
rent for the space used.

2. Roof Top Pole(RTP)

Telecom Service Provider installs a pole/antenna on the roof of a building, paying
the rent for the space used.

3. Pole (POL)
Telecom Service Provider pays the rent for the ground and erects his pole from the
ground level.

4. Cell on Wheels (COW)

Used where a very large temporary gathering is organized. For temporary
providing ofsignals.

Tools Used for RF Planning–

1. Network Planning Tool

2. Propagation Test Kit

3. Traffic Modelling Tool

4. Project Management Tool

Network Planning Tool

Network planning tool is used to assist engineers in designing and optimizing wireless networks by
providing an accurate and reliable prediction of coverage, doing frequency planning
automatically, creating neighbor lists etc.

With a database that takes into account data such as terrain, clutter, and antenna radiation
patterns, as well as an intuitive graphical interface, the Planning tool gives RF engineers a
state-of-the-art tool to:

73
  Design wireless networks

 Plan network expansions

 Optimize network performance

 Diagnose system problems

Propagation Test Kit

The propagation test kit contains of –

 Test Transmitter

 Antenna

 Receiver to scan RX Level

 Computer to collect data

 GPS to get altitude and longitude

 Cables and accessories

 wattmeter

The transmitted power levels are then measured and collected by the Drive test kit. This data is
then loaded on the Planning tool and used for tuning models.

Traffic Modelling Tool

Traffic modelling tool is used by the planning engineer for Network modelling and
dimensioning. It helps the planning engineer to calculate the number of network elements
needed to fulfil coverage, capacity and quality needs.

Project Management Tool

 Though not directlylinked to RF Design Planning, it helps in scheduling the RF Design

process and also to know the status of the project.

74
  Site database: This includes RF data, site acquisition, power, civil, etc.

 Inventory Control

 Fault tracking

 Finance Management

MapInfo

MapInfo Professional is the tool used in Idea. It is a desktop geographic information system (GIS)
software product produced by Pitney Bowes Software (formerly MapInfo Corporation) and used
for mapping and location analytics. MapInfo allows users to visualize, analyses, edit, interpret,
understand and output data to reveal relationships, patterns, and trends.
MapInfo allows users to explore spatial data within a dataset, symbolize features, and create
maps. It is used along with Google Earth to view clutter and plan sitesaccordingly.

MapInfo Professional is used by proficient GIS users or analysts for complex spatialanalysis,
buildingreportsthatdescribetheirconclusions,andmaking decisions based on those
conclusions. It is used for a wide range of business applications in manyindustries.

Features in Map Info –

1. Layering: One of the most frequently used features of MapInfo Professional is its abilityto
combine data from widelydifferent sources, even with different formats and projections,
in the same map window. Once combined in the map window, relationships that only
exist geographically between the different data sets can be visualized and queried.
Layers can be vector and raster together.

2. Thematic Mapping: Allows the user to shade maps, present bar & pie charts,graduated
symbols,dotdensity,and grids.Inaddition,thePrism thematic feature that allows regions
of the map to be extruded to give the impression ofheight.

3. SQLSelectionwithGeographicExtensions:BuildandsaveSQLqueries that access and

integrate data from multiple tables. Frequently performed queries can be written
once, re-used and distributed to others.

75
4. Charts & Graphs: Interactive graphs and charts including 3D, bubble, column,
histogram, surface, area, bar, line and pie scatter charts. Select graph templates
from thumbnail sketches. Graphing style control includes position, tilt, rotation and
pie explosion.

5. Hotlinks: Any object in a map can now contain a link to a document (URL, .doc, .xls,
.ppt,.tab,.wor, .mdb, etc.) that will automatically launch when clicked.

6. 3DVisualization:3Dviewingallowsforfreehandtiltandrotationsof maps as well as

for traditional panning and zooming.

7. Raster Image Support: Use raster images such as scanned paper maps, satellite images,
photographs and logos to provide detailed content layers for yourmaps.

8. Linked Views: View and/or edit data in multiple linked views (including rows and
columns, graphs and maps) simultaneously.

9. Buffers around Objects: Perform detailed geographic searches with buffering and
area selection tools.

10. Geographic Searches: Integrate geographic criteria into database queries (contains,
intersects, within, etc.).

11. Drag and Drop Tool: Improve presentations by "dragging and dropping" a map into other
applications such as Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint and Corel Draw or export
maps directly into Photoshop.

12. Crystal Reports: Use the built-in report writer from Crystal Reports to provide
additional support for your visual analysis.

13. Conflict Management: Manage discrepancies in data when multiple users write to
server-based data files.

14. Universal Translator: Translate bi-directional between MapInfo Professionalandother

mappingenvironmentsincludingAutoCAD,ESRI and Intergraph/Bentley. Formats
include DWG, DXF, DGN, Shape and E00 and soon.

15. Rotate Map Window Utility: Rotate the map window a specific number of degrees.

16. Easy Loader: Upload MapInfo TAB files into database.

76
MapInfo Snapshots

Fig: Area served by a particular BTS. Area in brown colour is served by

sector displayed in brown colour, and so on.

77
Fig: Other BTS along with their coverage areas

78
Google Earth Snapshots

Fig: Direction of antennas and clutter served by respective sectors

79
Fig: A more detailed picture showing coverage areas

80
Fig: Easily distinguishable clutter and open areas

81
Path Loss

The propagation attenuation, or path loss, is defined as the ratio between the transmitted and received
powers on each end of a radio link:

L = PT/PR

Path loss is defined in such a way that it is always greater than one. It is the general formula for
Path Loss.

Path loss can further be divided into two factors: free space loss and additional loss. The free space
loss comes from the fact that the power from the transmitter radiates in all direction as a spherical
wave.

Additional losses come from the fact that the radio waves are usually not propagating in
ideal free space. There is a nearby earth plane, precipitation like rain,hail and snow,natural
obstacleslikehills, mountainsandforests and man-made obstacles like buildings and vehicles.

RX Level

RX Level means Received Level, it is the level which MS receives. It is calculated by –

RX Level (dBm) = EIRP (dBm) – Path Loss (dB)

where EIPR is Effective Isotropic Radiated Power EIRP (dBm)

= Pt (dBm) – Lc (dB) + Ga (dBi),

where PtisOutputpoweroftransmitter, Lc is
Cable Losses,and
Ga is Antenna Gain

Path Loss (dB) = 20 log(4πd) – 20 log(λ)

It is the formula of Path Loss used by radio and antenna engineers.

where d is distance, and λ is

wavelength

82
Link Budget

A link budget is accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter, through the medium
(free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication system. It
accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna
gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses. Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are
taken into account by adding some margin depending on the anticipated severity of its
effects. The amount of margin required can be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques
such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.

A simple link budget equation looks like:

Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)

A link budget equation including all the effects,

PRX = PTX + GTX – LTX – LFS – LM + GRX -LRX

where, PRX = received power(dBm)

PTX = transmitter output power (dBm) GTX =
transmitterantennagain (dBi)
LTX = transmitter losses (coax, connectors...) (dB) LFS = free
space loss or path loss (dB)
LM = miscellaneous losses (fading margin, body loss, polarization mismatch, other losses...)
(dB)
GRX = receiver antenna gain (dBi)
LRX = receiver losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)

Radio Propagation Model

A radio propagation model, also known as the Radio Wave Propagation Model or the Radio
Frequency Propagation Model, is an empirical mathematical formulation for the
characterization of radio wave propagation as a function of frequency, distance and other
conditions. A single model is usually developed to predict the behavior of propagation for all
similar links under similar constraints. Created with the goal offormalizing the way radio waves
are propagated from one place to another, such models typically predict the path loss along a
link or the effective coverage area of atransmitter.

83
As the path loss encountered along any radio link serves as the dominant factor for
characterization of propagation for the link, radio propagation models typically focus on
realization of the path loss with the auxiliary task of predicting the area of coverage for a transmitter
or modelling the distribution of signals over different regions.

Because each individual telecommunication link has to encounter different terrain, path,
obstructions, atmospheric conditions and other phenomena, it is intractable to formulate the exact
loss for all telecommunication systems in
a single mathematical equation. As a result, different models exist for different types of radio links
under different conditions. The models rely on computing the median path loss for a link under a
certain probability that the considered conditions will occur.

Different models have been developed to meet the needs of realizing the propagation behavior in different
conditions.

a) Okumura Model

The Okumura model for urban areas is a Radio propagation model that was built
using the data collected in the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in
cities with many urban structures but not many tall blocking structures. The model
served as a base for the Hata Model.

Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban, suburban and open
areas. The model for urban areas was built first and used as the base for others.

Coverage

Frequency = 150–1920MHz
Mobile station antenna height: between 1 m and 10 m Base station
antenna height: between 30 m and 1000 m Link distance: between 1 km
and 100 km

Mathematical formulation

The Okumura model is formally expressed as: L = LFSL +

AMU – HMG – HBG – ∑Kcorrection

84
 where, L = median path loss in dB LFSL =
free space loss in dB
AMU = Median attenuation in dB
HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor. HBG = Base
station antenna height gain factor.
Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of environment,
watersurfaces,isolatedobstacle etc.)

Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban
areas. This model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150–1920 MHz (although it
is typically extrapolated up to 3000 MHz)and distances of 1–100 km. It can be used for
base-station antenna heights ranging from 30–1000 m.

b) Hata Model

This model is based on Hata Model. It is turn has developed separate models for varying
environments:

 Hata Model for Urban Areas

 Hata Model for Suburban Areas

 Hata Model for Open Areas

Hata model for urbanareas

In wireless communication, the Hata model for urban areas, also known as the Okumura–Hata
model for being a developed version of the Okumura model, is the most widely used radio
frequency propagation model for predictingthe behavior ofcellulartransmissionsinbuilt up
areas. Thismodel incorporates the graphical information from Okumura model and develops it
further to realize the effects of diffraction, reflection and scattering caused bycitystructures. This
model also has twomore varieties for transmission in suburban areas and open areas.

Applicable to/under conditions

This particular version of the Hata model is applicable to the radio propagation within urban
areas.

85
Thismodelissuitedforbothpoint-to-pointandbroadcasttransmissionsandit is based on
extensive empirical measurements taken.

PCS is another extension of the Hata model. The Walfisch and Bertoni model is further advanced.

Coverage

Frequency: 150–1500 MHz

Mobile Station Antenna Height: 1–10 m Base
station Antenna Height: 30–200 m Link distance:
1–10 km.

Mathematical formulation

The Hata model for urban areas is formulated as following:

LU = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f) – 13.82 log(hB) – CH + [44.9 – 6.55 log(hB)]log(d)

For small or medium sized city,

CH = 0.8 + (1.1 log(f) – 0.7)hM – 1.56log(f)

and for largecities,

CH = 8.29 [ log(1.54* hM) ]2 – 1.1 for 150 ≤ f ≤ 200

CH = 3.20 [ log(11.75* hM) ] – 4.97 for 200 ≤ f ≤ 1500
2

where LU = Path loss in urban areas in dB

hB = Height of base station antenna meters
hM = Height of mobile station antenna in meters f=
Frequency of transmission in MHz
CH = Antenna height correctionfactor
d = Distance between the base and MS in km

Hatamodel for suburban areas

The Hata model for suburban areas, also known as the Okumura–Hata model for being a
developed version of the Okumura model, is the most widely used model in radio frequency
propagation for predicting the behavior of cellular

86
transmissions in city outskirts and other rural areas. This model incorporates the graphical
information from Okumura model and develops it further to better suited the need. This model
also has two more varieties for transmission in urban areas and open areas.

The Hata model predicts the total path loss along a link of terrestrial microwave or other
type of cellular communications. And is a function of transmission frequency and the average
path loss in urban areas.

Applicable to/under conditions

Thisparticularversion ofHatamodelisapplicabletothetransmissions justout of the cities and on

rural areas where man-made structures are there but not so high and dense as in the cities. To be
more precise, this model is suitable where buildings exist, but the mobile station does not have
a significant variation of its height. This model is suited for both point-to-point and broadcast
transmissions.

Coverage

Frequency: 150 MHz – 1.50 GHz

Mathematical formulation

Hata model for suburban areas is formulated as,

LSU = LU – 2[ log(f/28) ]2 – 5.4

where, LSU = Path loss in suburban areas in dB

LU = Average path loss in urban areas for small sized city in dB f = Frequency
of transmission in MHz

Hata model for open areas

The Hata model for open areas, also known as the Okumura–Hata model from its origins in
the Okumura model, is the most widely used model for predictingthe behaviorofcellularradio
transmissionsinopen areas.It further exploits the graphical information from the Okumura
model. Two additional varieties for transmission are urban areas and suburban areas.

87
The Hata model for open areas predicts the total path loss along a link of terrestrial
microwave orother type of cellular communications. It is a function of transmission frequency and
the median path loss in urban areas.

Applicable to/under conditions

This version of Hata model is applicable to the transmissions in open areas where no obstructions
block the transmission link. It is suited for both point-to- point and broadcasttransmissions.

Coverage

Frequency: 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz

Mathematical formulation

The Hata model for open areas is formulated as: LO = LU –

4.78 [ log(f) ]2 + 18.33 log(f) – 40.94

where LO = Path loss in open area in dB

LU = Path loss in urban areas for small sized city in dB f =
Frequency of transmission in MHz

Dimensioning Cells

A cell is the basic ‘construction block’ of a GSM network. One cell is the geographical area
covered by one BTS. Cells are grouped under Base Station Controllers (BSC).

Erlang is the measuring unit of network traffic. One Erlang equals the continuous use of
a mobile device for one hour.

XErlangs=(Calls/hour)*(AvgConversationTime)/3600sec Amount of
traffic is independent of the observation duration.

If one hundred six-minute calls are received on a group of such circuits, then the total traffic in that
hour is six hundred minutes or 10 Erlangs.

When used to represent carried traffic, a value followed by “erlangs” represents the average
number of concurrent calls carried by the circuits (or other service-providing elements), where
that average is calculated over

88
some reasonable period of time. The period over which the average is calculated is often one
hour, but shorter periods (e.g., 15 minutes) may be used where it is known that there are short
spurts of demand and a traffic measurement is desired that does not mask these spurts.

When used to describe offered traffic, a value followed by “erlangs” represents the average
number of concurrent calls that would have been carried if there were an unlimited number of
circuits (that is, if the call- attempts that were made when all circuits were in use had not been
rejected). The relationship between offered traffic and carried traffic depends on the design of
the system and user behavior. Three common models are (a) callers whose call-attempts are
rejected go away and never come back, (b) callers whose call-attempts are rejected try again
within a fairly short space of time, and (c) the system allows users to wait in queue until a circuit
becomesavailable.

A third measurement of traffic is instantaneous traffic, expressed as a certain number of Erlangs,

meaning the exact number of calls taking place at a point in time. In this case the number is an
integer. Traffic-level-recording devices, such as moving-pen recorders, plot instantaneous
traffic.

Erlang-B(sometimesalsowrittenwithoutthehyphenErlangB),alsoknownas the Erlang loss

formula, is a formula for the blocking probability that describes the probability of call losses for a
group of identical parallel resources (telephone lines, circuits, traffic channels, or equivalent).

The Erlang B formula applies under the condition that an unsuccessful call, because the line is
busy, is not queued or retried, but instead really vanishes forever.It isassumedthatcall attempts
arrivefollowingaPoisson process,so call arrival instants are independent. Further,it is assumed
that the message lengths (holding times)are exponentiallydistributed (Markovian system),
although the formula turns out to apply under general holding time distributions.

Grade of Service (GOS) is the maximum congestion allowed. Supposing that GOS is 5 % - which
means that during a certain observation period (usually 1 hour) 5 out of 100 calls fail due to lack
of resources.

89
 Fig: Erlang B Table

Find number of channels required for communication if Erlangs and GOS is known by using the
Erlang B Table. Suppose the channels required are 16. Since each carrier supports 8 channels, we
can make estimation that this cell must be equipped with 2 carriers, i.e., 2 TRX.

Frequency Reuse

There is a limited number of frequencies available to each Base Station Subsystem and they
must be distributed between the cells to ensure a balanced coverage throughout the BSS.

The GSM network includes a specification of the Frequency reuse pattern.

The next step involves the dimensioning of the Location Areas. This is carried out according to the
traffic characteristics of each area. The final phase is the dimensioning of the Fixed Network on
the basis of the traffic requirements and dimensioning of the entire radio network.

The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse factor.

90
The reuse distance, D is calculated as D = R
(3N)1/3

Two types ofsites-

 Coverage Sites- for providing coverage of network

 Capacity Sites- to share traffic

Traffic that can be handled by a particular site is determined by the number of TRXin that BTS. In
earlier days, there was a limit to the BTSs that there can be maximum of 4 TRX in each sector of the
BTS. In general, for 3 sectors, that would mean 12 TRX in each BTS and hence 12 TRX at each
site. In case to handle more traffic, 2 BTS were installed in parallel, side by side. But newer BTSs
support more TRX in each sector, may be up to 8 TRX for each sector; and hence 24 TRX at one
BTS.

Each frequency is divided into 8 slots, each having one TCH of Full rate. If TCH of Half rates are
used, then each slot would have 2 TCH of half rate. Erlang B Table consider TCH of Full rates only.
Grade of Service (GOS) is the threshold of percentage of Call Blocks.

Traffic that can be handled by one BTS with a particular number of TRX with specified GOS
(usually 2%) is determined by Erlang Table. It is theoretical traffic value that BTS can handle.
With the use of Half rate TCH, capacity to handle traffic would increase, but the quality of
service would decrease.

Idea implements Nokia Architecture in BSS. BTS that Idea use were manufactured by a joint
venture of Nokia and Siemens called Nokia Siemens Network. But after the possession of Idea by
Microsoft, it is done by Nokia only.

It is very much possible that BSS is manufactured by some company and NSS is manufactured by
other company. In that case, NMS for both will be different. But the BSS and the NSS will still
be compatible so that they can communicate with each other and the OSS.

Drive Testing

Drive Testing is a method of measuring and assessing the coverage, capacity and Quality of
Service (QoS) of a mobile radio network.

91
 Fig: 2G drivetesting

The technique consists of using a motor vehicle containing mobile radio network air interface
measurement equipment that can detect and record a

92
wide variety of the physical and virtual parameters of mobile cellular service in a given
geographicalarea.

By measuring what a wireless network subscriber would experience in any specific area, wireless
carriers can make directed changes to their networks that provide better coverage and service to
their customers.

Fig: 3G drivetesting

93
Drive testing requires a mobile vehicle outfitted with drive testing measurementequipment.
Theseequipment’sareusuallyhighlyspecialized electronic devices that interface to OEM
mobile handsets. This ensures measurements are realistic and comparable to actual user
experiences.

Data Collected during Drive Testing

Drive test equipment typically collects data relating to the network itself, services running
on the network such as voice or data services, radio frequency scanner information and
GPS information to provide location logging.

The data set collected during drive testing field measurements can include information such as:

1. Signal intensity

2. Signal quality

3. Interference

4. Dropped calls

5. Blocked calls

6. Anomalous events

7. Call statistics

8. Service level statistics

9. Quality of Serviceinformation

10. Handover information

11. Neighboring cell information

12. GPS location co-ordinates

94
Site Audit

 The act of conducting a review, examination and reconciliation of Telecom, Wireless

and Network customer service records, invoicing and contract agreements in order to
ensure the accuracy of budgetary forecasting.

 Independent review and examination of records and activities to assess the adequacy of
system controls, to ensure compliance with established policies and operational
procedures, and to recommend necessary changes in controls, policies, or procedures.

 Analysis of invoices, lines, rates, tariffs, taxes, plans, usage, call volume, systems, and
contracts resulting in cost reduction, proper invoicing and optimization of
telecommunication systems often conducted by an independent telecommunications
consultant or firm.

Optimization
Reasons for Optimization–

 Maintain/Improve QoS

 Attract new customers

 Maximize revenue-generating service

 Maximize efficiency of network functional elements

 Original design information has changed

 Flawed original designinformation

Congestion may exist in certain areas and by prudent optimization, additional capacity can
be generated with no additional infrastructure investment.

95
Performance Management Cycle

Fig: Performance ManagementCycle

The initial step in performance management is to define a set of QoS (Quality of Service)
parameters such as dropped call rates and call success rates. Key metrics are derived from data
collected from sources such as drive tests, statistical data, customer complaints and field
engineer reports and are used to measure the performance of the network. These metrics are
analyzed and compared to the QoS targets in order to identify any performance degradation in
the network.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

KPIs should be maintained within threshold for good performance of the network.

96
KPIs to be monitored –

 SDD Standalone Dedicated Drop

 TCHD Traffic Channel Drop

 SDB Standalone Dedicated Block

 TCHB Traffic Channel Block

 HOSR Handover Success Rate

Fig: KPIs

What is Dropped Call?

All cell resources are available but calls are failing, then we have a call drop scenario. This could
be caused bysoftware errors, congestion,C7 link failures, HW problems or many other reasons.

If a call is abnormally disconnected, a Clear Request is sent to the MSC.Ifthe Call is disconnected
in a normal Fashion then Clear Message with cause code Call Control is sent. It is important to
establish what types of calls are failing, and over what percentage of the network it is occurring.

97
SD Blocking

SD blocking means that you are not getting SD resource for the call origination. When MS
connects with NW then RACH and AGCH are provided. After AGCH, SDCCH is provided but if
SDCCH is not provided at this time due some problems or due to unavailable of SD by BSC, it’s
called as SD Blocking. There are no of reasons for that. If such a case arises the customer will not be
able to originate any call.

If all the SD resources are full and not available for SD assign then it comes under congestion. If
at a particular time call is attempted and it fails then it known as Blocking.

Solutions to SD Blocking

 Check the No. of SDCCH channel Available, if less then increase SD channel taking
care that there is no TCH Blocking.

 Check LAC boundary, if location update is more, then change the LAC of that site and
set C2 and HYS.

 Use of Dynamic SDCCH (It is a BSC parameter and will be applied on whole BTS).

 Hardware check / shift SD to new time slot.

 Use reportnumber 182 inthe OSS toanalyses SDBlockingreasons and 130 for SD
congestion.

SD Drop

It occurs between allocation of SD and before TCH allocation. Sometimes SD drop occurs
because queuing is not activated in the system.

IfSDdropishigh,lookonparameterslike–overshooting,shifttheSDtimeslot, may be hardware

issue, interference, change the values of RXP, PMAX, may be issue of uplink or downlink issue in
that cells for UL put a TMA in that cell and for DL provide tilt, re-orient that antenna.

98
Solutions to SD Drop

 Check the BCCHPlan.

 MapInfo to find out proper frequency to reduce interference.

 The best way to find the real issues for Interference makes Drive Test.

 Check interference by Interference scanning.

 Check clean BCCH by frequency scanning.

 Use report ZEOL to find the alarms.

 Use 208 for Path loss analysis.

 Use 196 for UL-DL Interference.

 Use 163 report for SD drop.

TCH Blocking

When TCH is not allocated to the user after SD allocation, it is TCH Blocking. It is the failed call
attempts which the MS user can notice. It takes place due to lack of TCHResource.

Solutions to TCH Blocking

 Implement half rate or Dual rate.

 Add another TRX.

 If TRX addition not possible, try to share the traffic of that cell with the neighboring cell
by changing tilt or orientation.

 Use report number 135 TCH Congestion.

99
TCH Drop

Drop during conversation is known as TCH drop.

Solutions to TCH Drop

 Check the BCCHPlan.

 If a cell is picking call from long distance, check the sample log according to
TA.

 Site Orientation.

 Effective tilt should be check.

 Mount position should be check

Handover Success Rate

If HOSR will be good TCH drop will also be good.

If Handover success rate degrades, call drop rate will take place.

Solutions to HOSR

 Try to retuneneighbors.

 The best waytofindthe real issues for HOfail make Drive Test. By DT it is very easy to find
the fail between cells.

 153 reports for HO fail between two cells.

100
 3rd Generation
The third generation, 3G, is expected to complete the globalization process of the mobile
communication. The trend is that 3G will mostly be based on GSM technical solutions due to
the reason: the GSM as technology dominates the market and great investments made to GSM
should be utilized as much aspossible.

Access to the Internet will become more important and executives will want to access corporate
databases from virtually anywhere. New services will be required in addition to speech and
data; therefore, network operators will offer video and other multimedia applications.

Specification Process for 3G

As the 3G system is expected to be global, world-wide and generic, the Specification

Bodies related are also global ones as the following list indicates. In addition to the
Specification Bodies, the specification process includes operators and manufacturers co-
operation.

There are four international standardization bodies acting as “generators” for 3G specification
work, these being:

1. ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union): This organization provides in practice all

the telecommunication branch specifications that are official in nature. Hence, these
form all the guidelines required by the manufacturers and country-specific authorities. ITU-
T has finished its development process for IMT2000, International Mobile Telephone –
2000 and the specification work is transferred to the 3GPP.

2. ETSI (European Telecommunication Standard Institute): This organizational body

has had a very strong role when GSM Specifications were developed and enhanced.
ETSI is divided into workgroups named as SMG (number) and every workgroup has
a specific area to be developed. Because of the GSM background ETSI is in a relatively
dominant role in this specification work. In Europe, the further developed IMT-2000 is
called 3G.

101
 Fig: 3G SpecificationBodies

3. ARIB (Alliance of Radio Industries and Business): ARIB provides commercially oriented
contributions for the specification process from the Australasian area. It has remarkable
experience, both commercial and technical, in the new selected 3G Air Interface
technology and several variants ofit.

4. ANSI (American National Standard Institute): ANSI is the American specification body
defining telecommunication-related issues in that part of the world. ANSI’s role is
relatively small as far as 3G concerned because of some political points of view. ANSI is
mainly concentrating on a competing 3G Air Interface technology selection called as
cdma2000.

3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)

In order to maintain globality and complete control of the 3G specifications, a separate

Specification Body called 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) takes care of the
specification work in co-operation with previously listed institutes. The outcome of the 3GPP
work is a complete set of specifications defining the 3G-network functionality, procedures and
service aspects.

102
The initial scope of 3GPP was to make a globally applicable third-generation (3G) mobile phone
system specification based on GSM specifications within the scope of the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 project of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The scope
was later enlarged to include the development and maintenance of:

 the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) including GSM evolved radio
access technologies (e.g. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE))

 an evolved third Generation and beyond Mobile System based on the evolved 3GPP
core networks, and the radio access technologies supported by the Partners (i.e.,
UTRA both FDD and TDD modes).

 an evolved IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) developed in an access independent

manner

Operator Harmonization Group(OHG)

Global system means global business and this is why there has been a lot of pressure to select or
emphasize certain solutions more than others. This political debate actually delayed the
specification work remarkably and finally an organization taking care of harmonization issues
was established. This organization, OHG aims to find a common understanding concerning the
globalissues.Theresultsofthisorganizationare usedasinputsin3GPPworkas well as in 3G future
implementations.

The aim of OHG work is to affect the specifications so that all the radio access variants are
compatible with all the variants meant for switching; this will ensure true globality for 3G.

 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephony System) is the name for the European, ETSI
driven 3G variant. It emphasizes the interoperability and backward compatibility between
the 3G implementation and GSM.

 IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telephony-2000) is the ITU-T name for the 3rd generation
cellular system. The Japanese view of 3G is based on the IMT-2000. The switching part of
this variant is quite open issue but it is expected to be based on the existing GSM
technology. The Radio Access is almost similar to the European variant but some
enhancements/extensions are made.

103
  IMT-2000 / cdma2000 are the names for the American 3G variant. In the American variant,
the TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) scenario which is at least partially based
on the enhanced GSM (EDGE) is also considered as an alternative.

GSMsystemswillevolvetowardstheUMTSbyprogressivelyintroducingnew techniques to
provide higher bandwidth. These steps are as follows –

 High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

 General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)

 Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

Traditionally TDMA timeslot provided a bit rate of 9.6 Kbps; however, a new modified air
interface brings the speed up to 14.4 Kbps. With HSCSD, a combination of up to four TDMA
timeslots could be used to provide data transfer rate at 57.6 Kbps.

General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G
cellular communication system. GPRS allows users to be charged for the actual amount of data
they transfer. The mobile user doesn't have to connect to the network each time he wants to
transfer data, he can stay connected all day.

WiththehighertransmissionspeedsprovidedbyGPRS,enduserswillfindthat file downloads are

faster, applications that were previously not possible now become possible and the overall
attractiveness of the data services will increase.

GPRS was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards

Institute (ETSI). It is now maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)

In order to offer package switched data service, there should be some modifications
done in the GSM network architecture. Data packages are handled with the help of two new
network elements –

104
  SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node)

 GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)

TheServingGPRS Support Node(SGSN)isarouterthat maintainsthe location information of the

mobile station and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) enables the data packets to be
passed on to other packet switching networks.

Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

EDGE will provide a bridge from GSM into the 3rd Generation mobile networks. It will use an
advanced GSM modulation technique to provide data speeds of 384Kbits/s but still using the
existing 200 kHz GSM channel.
The extra capacity is achieved by increasing the data capacity of a single GSM timeslot from
9.6 Kbps to 48 Kbps and possibly up to nearly 70 Kbps under good radioconditions.

EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as an Internet connection.

Wireless Application Protocol(WAP)

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a technical standard for accessing information over a
mobile wireless network. A WAP browser is a web browser for mobile devices such as mobile
phones that uses the protocol. Before the introduction of WAP, mobile service providers had
limited opportunities to offer interactive data services, but needed interactivity to support Internet
and Web applications.

Wireless Markup Language (WML), based on XML, is a markup language intended for
devices that implement the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) specification, such as mobile
phones. It provides navigational support, data input, hyperlinks, text and image presentation, and
forms, much like HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).

105
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)

HSDPA is an enhanced 3G (third-generation) mobile-telephone communications protocol in

the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also dubbed 3.5G, 3G+, or Turbo 3G, which
allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have
higher data- transfer speeds and capacity. As of 2013 HSDPA deployments can support down-
link speeds of up to 42.3 Mbit/s. HSPA+ offers further speed increases, providing speeds of up to
337.5 Mbit/s with Release 11 of the 3GPP standards.

For HSDPA, a new transport layer channel, High-Speed Downlink Shared Channel (HS-
DSCH), has been added to 3GPP release 5 and further specification. It is implemented by
introducing three new physical layer channels: HS-SCCH, HS-DPCCH and HS-PDSCH. The High
Speed-Shared Control Channel (HS-SCCH) informs the user that data will be sent on the HS-
DSCH, 2 slots ahead. The Uplink High Speed-Dedicated Physical Control Channel (HS-
DPCCH) carries acknowledgment information and current channel quality indicator (CQI) of
the user. This value is then used by the base station to calculate how much data to send to the user
devices on the next transmission. The High Speed-Physical Downlink Shared Channel (HS-PDSCH)
is the channel to which the above HS-DSCH transport channel is mapped that carries actual user
data.

Hybrid automatic repeat-request(HARQ)

Dataistransmittedtogetherwitherrorcorrectionbits.Minorerrorscanthus be corrected
without retransmission; see forward error correction.

If retransmission is needed, the user device saves the packet and later combines it with
retransmitted packet to recover the error-free packet as efficientlyaspossible. Evenifthe
retransmitted packetsare corrupted,their combination can yield an error-free packet.
Retransmitted packet may be either identical (chase combining) or different from the first
transmission (incremental redundancy).

SinceHARQretransmissionsareprocessedatthephysicallayer,their12ms round-trip time is

much lower compared to higher layer retransmissions.

Fast packet scheduling

The HS-DSCH downlink channel is shared between users using channel- dependent scheduling
to make the best use of available radio conditions.

106
Each user device continually transmits an indication of the downlink signal quality, as often as
500 times per second. Using this information from all devices, the base station decides which
users will be sent data in the next 2ms frame and how much data should be sent for each user.
More data can be sent to users which report high downlink signal quality.

The amount of the channelization code tree, and thus network bandwidth, allocated to HSDPA
users is determined by the network. The allocation is "semi-static" in that it can be modified
while the network is operating, but not on a frame-by-frame basis. This allocation represents a
trade-off between bandwidth allocated for HSDPA users, versus that for voice and non-HSDPA
data users. The allocation is in units of channelization codes for Spreading Factor 16, of which 16
exist and up to 15 can be allocated to the HS-DSCH. When the base station decides which
users will receive data in the next frame, it also decides which channelization codes will be
used for each user. This information is sent to the user on one of up to 4 HS-SCCHs, which are not
part of the HS-DSCH allocation previously mentioned, but are allocated separately. Thus, for
a given 2ms frame, data may be sent to a number of users simultaneously, using different
channelization codes.

Adaptive modulation and coding

The modulation scheme and coding are changed on a per-user basis, depending on signal
quality and cell usage. The initial scheme is quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), but in good
radio conditions 16QAM and 64QAM can significantly increase data throughput rates. With
5 Code allocation, QPSK typically offers up to 1.8 Mbit/s peak data rates, while 16QAM offers
up to 3.6 Mbit/s. Additional codes (e.g. 10, 15) can also be used to improve these data rates
or extend the network capacity throughput significantly.

3G Network Structure
The obvious lack of GSM systems is and was the bandwidth offered to the end-user. In the
beginning the bandwidth offered to the end-user was reasonable but later on when the
technology developed and the end-user requirements increased and new services such as the
Internet became more common the bandwidth becameinadequate.

This was the main reason for starting the specification for the next generation cellular networks.

107
 Fig: 3G Network Principle Diagram

The abbreviation RAN comes from the words Radio Access Network and the term CN means
Core Network. The multiple access method used in RAN is Wideband Code Division
Multiple Access, WCDMA. The RAN is limited with open interfaces in order to guarantee
multi-vendor scenarios. Also, the interfaces within the CN and between the CN and the other
networks can be considered as open but there may be several national limitations /
enhancements / extensions present. The 3G network can also be presented as a collection of
Management Layers, which cover certain parts of the network.

The Radio Resource Management is completely covered between the RAN and the UE and it
involves managing how the channels are allocated. The Mobility Management, Session
Management and Call Control are maintained by the Core Network Domains and their function
is dependent upon the domain is the CS (circuit switched) or PS (packet switched). The higher
layer functions performed between the UE and CN are often called as CM, Communication
Management. The CM entity covers the topics like Call Control (CC), Supplementary Services
(SS) and Short Message Service (SMS).

The 3G network will have the means and readiness for data transfer in all forms. The traffic
to be delivered through 3G can be divided into two categories being Circuit Switched and
Packet Switched. The Circuit Switched traffic normally has a high real-time requirement (i.e. no
delay or the delay occurring must be constant). Normal speech and Video Phoning are
examples of this kind of traffic. The Packet Switched traffic normally does not

108
have such exact real-time requirements and a good example of this kind of traffic is an Internet
connection.

W-C DMA (Wideband-Code Division Multiple Access) will be employed on the air interface
mainly for wide area applications and will use paired frequency bands, one for the uplink and one
for the downlink. This is commonly referred to as Frequency Division Duplex (FDD).

UMTS will also employ TD-CDMA (Time Division-Code Division Multiple Access) for low
mobility indoor applications using Time Division Duplex (TDD) similar to cordless technologies.
Together, these two elements of the air interface (FDD and TDD) are known as UTRA (UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access).

The evolution of UMTS progresses according to planned releases. Each release is designed to
introduce new features and improve upon existing ones.

 Release 99

Bearer Services
64kbpscircuitswitch 384
kbps switched Location
Services
Call Service: compatible with GSM, based on USIM Voice
Quality Features

 Release 4

Edge Radio
Multimedia Messaging Improved
Location Services IP Multimedia
Services
TD – SCDMA

 Release 5

IP Multimedia Subsystem IPv6,

IPtransportinUTRAN
Improvements in GERAN, Mixed, etc.

 Release 6

WLAN integration
Multimedia broadcast andmulticast

109
 Improvements in IMS HSUPA
Fractional DPCH

 Release 7

Enhanced L2 64
QAM, MIMO
Voice over HSPA
CPC – continuous packet connectivity FRLC –
FlexibleRLC

 Release 8

Dual Cell HSDPA

 Release 9

Dual Cell HSUPA

In FDD, transmit on one frequency and receive on another frequency.

Fig: FDD

110
In TDD, TX and RX is on the same frequency but on different times.

Fig: TDD

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access is a technique that allows many different mobile telephones to
use the same frequency at the same time but with each phone assigned a unique code
sequence known as a "spreading code".

CDMA is a form of "spread spectrum" where the information is spread across the available
bandwidth of the radio channel.

The spreading code is used to encode an information bearing digital signal. The receiver uses the
same code to decode the signal and recover the information data. As the bandwidth of the code
signal is chosen to be much larger than the bandwidth of the information signal, the encoding
process enlarges (spreads) the spectrum of the signal. This spectral spreading of the transmitted
signal gives CDMA its multiple access capability.

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA)

For the 3rd generation mobile systems, a high bit rate is required for multi- media data.
Therefore, the spreading code must be of a higher bit rate. CDMA uses a bandwidth of
1.25MHz but the W-CDMA systems for UMTS will occupy a bandwidth of approximately
5MHz.

111
In the W-CDMA system the spreading codes are used to spread out the data signal to cover the
whole wideband spectrum which is allocated for the data transfer.

The data rates of 144Kbits/s and 384Kbits/s are achievable within this bandwidth and can
provide reasonable capacity 2Mbit/s peak rate under limited conditions.

The large 5MHz bandwidth can resolve more multipaths than narrower bandwidths. This
will increase diversity and improve performance. Wider bandwidths of 10, 15 and 20MHz may
be proposed in the future to support high data rates more effectively.

3G Network Architecture
UMTS can in many aspects be looked upon as an extension to GSM and GPRS. The
greatest changes are related to the access part of the network. The access network, called UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Network (UTRAN), consists of base stations and base stations controllers.

The base stations are called Node B. A Node B can support FDD mode, TDD mode or dual-
mode operation. Several base stations are managed by a Radio Network Controller(RNC).
The RNC isresponsible for theHandover decisions that require signaling to the UE.

Node B

Node B is a term used in UMTS equivalent to the BTS (base transceiver station) description used in
GSM.

The utilization of WCDMA technology allows cells belonging to the same or different Node Bs
and even controlled by different RNC to overlap and still use the same frequency (in fact, the
whole network can be implemented with just one frequency pair). The effect is utilized in soft
handovers.

Since WCDMA often operates at higher frequencies than GSM (2,100 MHz as opposed to 900
MHz for GSM), the cell radius can be considerably smaller for WCDMA than for GSM cells as
the path loss is frequency dependent. WCDMA now has networks operating in the 850–900 MHz
band. In these networks, at

112
these frequencies, the coverage of WCDMA is considered better than that of the equivalent
GSM network.

Fig: 3G NetworkArchitecture

A full cell site has a cabinet, an antenna mast and actual antenna. An equipment cabinet
contains e.g. power amplifiers, digital signal processors and backup batteries.

Node B Setup –

A full cell site has a cabinet, an antenna mast and actual antenna. An equipment cabinet
contains e.g. power amplifiers, digital signal processors and backup batteries. What you can
see by the side of a road or in a city center is just an antenna. However, the tendency
nowadays is to camouflage the antenna (paint it the colour of the building or put it into an RF-
transparent enclosure). Smaller indoornodes mayhave an antenna built into the cabinet door.

113
A Node B can serve several cells, also called sectors, depending on the configuration and type
of antenna. Common configuration includes omni cell (360°), 3 sectors (3×120°) or 6 sectors (3
sectors 120° wide overlapping with 3 sectors of differentfrequency).

Radio Network Controller (RNC)

The Radio Network Controller (or RNC) is a governing element in the UMTS radio access
network (UTRAN) and is responsible for controlling the Node Bs that are connected to it. The
RNC carries out radio resource management, some of the mobility management functions
and is the point where encryption is done before user data is sent to and from the mobile.

The logical connections between the network elements are known as interfaces. The interface
between the RNC and the Circuit Switched Core Network (CS-CN) is called Iu-CS and between
the RNC and the Packet Switched Core Network is called Iu-PS. Other interfaces include Iub
(between the RNC and the Node B) and Iur (between RNCs in the same network). Iu interfaces
carry user traffic (such as voice or data) as well as control information, and Iur interface is
mainly needed for soft handovers.

Media Gateway (MGW)

A media gateway is a translation device or service that converts digital media streams
between disparate telecommunications network. Because the media gateway connects
different types of networks, one of its main functions is to convert between different
transmission and coding techniques.

Soft Handover

Soft handover or soft handoff refers to a feature used by the CDMA and W- CDMA standards,
where a cell phone is simultaneously connected to two or more cells (or cell sectors) during a
call. If the sectors are from the same physical cell site (a sectorized site), it is referred to as softer
handoff. This technique is a form of mobile-assisted handover, CDMA cell phones
continuously make power measurements of a list of neighboring cell sites, and determine
whether or not to request or end soft handover with the cell sectors on thelist.

114
Hard handover is a typical Handover mechanism in a communication network which is
designed to work by first breaking off from the initial connection with a base station before
switching to another base station. This is done in order to retain communications in a session for
mobile users after incurring a non-perceptible and insignificant brief interruption. A Hard
handoff is also referred to as “Break-before-Make” handover.

Cell Radius

Hata’sEmpiricalformula Path

Loss =
= 69.55 + 26.16 * log(fc) – 13.82 * log(hb) + [44.9 – 6.55 * log(hb)] log(R) –a(hm) where,

hb is the base station effective antenna height in meters fc is the carrier

frequency in MHz
hm is the mobile station effective antenna height in meters PL is the
propagation loss or path loss EIRP in dB
a(hm) is the correction factor for the mobile station antenna height, hm in meter. A = 0 for
hm = 1.5 m.
R is the cell radius in kilometers

From above equation, cell radius R can be calculated.

115
 Differences between 2G and 3G

Parameter 2G 3G
License fees is low. Network License fees is high. Network
Cost construction and maintenance construction and maintenance
are also low. are also high.
Lower data speeds, and less High data speeds, and more
Data
compatible with functions of compatible with newer technology.
Transmission
smartphone.
Data
236 kbps (UL and DL) 21Mbps (DL)and5.7Mbps(UL)
Speed
Basic services and Mobile TV, video transfers and
Features
supplementary services GPS
Frequency
200kHz 5MHz
Band Width
Security Low High

Modulation GMSK QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM, BPSK

Channel
FDMA with TDMA FDD with WCDMA
Access
Frequency 900MHz and1800MHz 2100MHz
Required lessfor aparticular area Required more for a particular area as
No. of Sites as frequency of coverage is less frequency of coverage is more

116
 A Visit to the Cell Site
During thecourse of the internship,I was allowed tovisit the Base Transceiver Station (BTS), and
inside its shelter, and I was briefed about all the network equipment’s.

Inside the Shelter

1. Base Transceiver Station(BTS)

Fig: BTS

The BTS of used here was manufactured by NSN. This model was called Flexi Edge BTS.
It can support a maximum of 24 TRX.

117
2. Power Interface Unit

It stops the fluctuations of AC.Its output is smooth AC. Its output isfed to SMPS.

3. SMPS

Fig: SMPS

To convert AC to DC. It has many modules for conversion. If power conversion limit
exceeds, new modules need to be added to convert more power. Power converter by the
SMPS is supplied to BTS and its TRXs. For connections, feeder cables are used. MCB is
used in the SMPS for protection of the circuit.

4. Battery bank

Its output is -48V. Battery Bank is used to supply power in the time interval of main
power cut and switching to the power supplied by Diesel Generator. It can supply
power for 4-5 hours. -48V is kept as a standard for “CathodicProtection”.

118
 Fig: Battery Bank

5. Duplexer

A duplexer is a device that allows bi-directional (duplex) communication over a

single path. It isolates the receiver from the transmitter while permitting them to
share a common antenna.

6. ACs and Fans

The AC prevent the overheating of all the instruments of the shelter. Fans provide
immediate backup in case AC goes off.

119
On the Tower

Fig: GSM Tower

1. Microwave Antenna

Fig: Microwave Antenna

120
To transmit or receive data from other sites, like from a BTS to other BTS or from a BTS
to a BSC. Frequencies has no relation with size of the microwave antennas. Microwave
antennas used for Line of Sight communications only.

2. GSM Antennas

Fig: GSM Antenna

These antennas are used for providing network coverage. Signals received in the MS are
due to them.

1. Grounding

Grounding used to protect the site from current leakage. Site always installed on a
proper concrete support pillar.

2. Shape of the Tower

Triangular or Straight shape doesn’t matter. Neither does three tower pillars or four. It all
depends on design and cost management and load of antennas it should handle.

121