Dept.

of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module IV

MODULE 4
Syllabus:
Types of Anthropogenic Disasters I– soil and soil degradation, desertification.

SOIL DEGRADATION
Many people do conceive the idea of soil degradation but a good number lacks the knowledge of its
precise definition. To fill this knowledge gap, soil degradation simply means the decline in soil quality
which comes about due to aspects such as improper land use, agriculture, and pasture, urban or
industrial purposes. It involves the decline of the soil’s physical, biological and chemical state.

Soil degradation examples include decline in soil fertility, adverse changes in alkalinity, acidity or
salinity, extreme flooding, use of toxic soil pollutants, erosion, and deterioration of the soil’s structural
condition. These elements contribute to a significant amount of soil quality depreciation annually.
Excessive soil degradation thus gives rise to immediate and long-term impacts which translate into
serious global environmental headaches.

While soil degradation may occur naturally, it has been highly exuberated by anthropogenic activities.
Besides, climate change combined with human activities continues to worsen soil degradation. With
the objective of understanding the distinct nature of soil quality decline, here are the causes, effects,
and solutions of soil degradation.

CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

1. Physical Factors
There are several physical factors contributing to soil degradation distinguished by the manners in
which they change the natural composition and structure of the soil. Rainfall, surface runoff, floods,
wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements result in the loss of fertile top spoil thereby declining soil
quality.
All these physical factors produces different types of soil erosion (mainly water and wind erosion) and
soil detachment actions, and their resultant physical forces eventually changes the composition and
structure of the soil by wearing away the soil’s top layer as well as organic matter. In the long-term,
the physical forces and weathering processes lead to the decline in soil fertility and adverse changes in
the soil’s composition/structure.
2. Biological Factors
Biological factors refer to the human and plant activities that tend to reduce the quality of soil. Some
bacteria and fungi overgrowth in an area can highly impact the microbial activity of the soil through
bio-chemical reactions, which reduces crop yield and the suitability of soil productivity capacity. Human
activities such as poor farming practices may also deplete soil nutrients thus diminishing soil fertility.
The biological factors affect mainly lessens the microbial activity of the soil.
3. Chemical Factors
The reduction of soil nutrients because of alkalinity or acidity or water logging are all categorized under
the chemical components of soil degradation. In the broadest sense, it comprises alterations in the
soil’s chemical property that determine nutrient availability. It is mainly caused by salt buildup and
leaching of nutrients which corrupt the quality of soil by creating undesirable changes in the essential
soil chemical ingredients. These chemical factors normally bring forth irreversible loss of soil nutrients
and productivity capacity such as the hardening of iron and aluminum rich clay soils into hardpans.

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4. Deforestation
Deforestation causes soil degradation on the account of exposing soil minerals by removing trees and
crop cover, which support the availability of humus and litter layers on the surface of the soil.
Vegetation cover primarily promotes thee binding of the soil together and soil formation, hence when
it is removed it considerably affects the capabilities of the soil such as aeration, water holding capacity,
and biological activity.
When trees are removed by logging, infiltration rates become elevated and the soil remains bare and
exposed to erosion and the buildup of toxicities. Some of the contributing activities include logging and
slash and burn techniques used by individuals who invade forest areas for farming, rendering the soils
unproductive and less fertile in the end.
5. Misuse or excess use of fertilizers
The excessive use and the misuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers kill organisms that assist in
binding the soil together. Most agricultural practices involving the use of fertilizers and pesticides often
entail misuse or excessive application, thereby contributing to the killing of soil’s beneficial bacteria
and other micro-organisms that help in soil formation.
The complex forms of the fertilizer’s chemicals are also responsible for denaturing essential soil
minerals, giving rise to nutrient losses from the soil. Therefore, the misuse or excessive use of fertilizers
increases the rate of soil degradation by destroying the soil’s biological activity and builds up of
toxicities through incorrect fertilizer use.
6. Industrial and Mining activities
Soil is chiefly polluted by industrial and mining activities. As an example, mining destroys crop cover
and releases a myriad of toxic chemicals such as mercury into the soil thereby poisoning it and
rendering it unproductive for any other purpose. Industrial activities, on the other hand, release toxic
effluents and material wastes into the atmosphere, land, rivers, and ground water that eventually
pollute the soil and as such, it impacts on soil quality. Altogether, industrial and mining activities
degrade the soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties.
7. Improper cultivation practices
There are certain agricultural practices that are environmentally unsustainable and at the same time,
they are the single biggest contributor to the worldwide increase in soil quality decline. The tillage on
agricultural lands is one of the main factors since it breaks up soil into finer particles, which increase
erosion rates. The soil quality decline is exuberated more and more as a result of the mechanization of
agriculture that gives room for deep plowing, reduction of plant cover, and the formation of the
hardpan. Other improper cultivation activities such as farming on steep slope and mono-cropping, row-
cropping and surface irrigation wear away the natural composition of the soil and its fertility, and
prevent soil from regenerating.
8. Urbanization
Urbanization has major implications on the soil degradation process. Foremost of all, it denudates the
soil’s vegetation cover, compacts soil during construction, and alters the drainage pattern. Secondly, it
covers the soil in an impermeable layer of concrete that amplifies the amount of surface runoff which
results in more erosion of the top soil. Again, most of the runoff and sediments from urban areas
are extremely polluted with oil, fuel, and other chemicals. Increased runoff from urban areas also
causes a huge disturbance to adjacent water sheds by changing the rate and volume of water that flows
through them, and impoverishing them with chemically polluted sediment deposits.
9. Overgrazing
The rates of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients as well as the top soil are highly contributed by
overgrazing. Overgrazing destroys surface crop cover and breaks down soil particles, increasing the
rates of soil erosion. As a result, soil quality and agricultural productivity is greatly affected.

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SALINIZATION OF SOIL
Normally, soil is rich in salts because the parent rock of the soil contains ionic substances. Seawater is
another source of salts in low-lying area along the coast. A very common source of salts in irrigated
soils, however, is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation water contains some salts. After irrigation,
the water added to the soil is used by the crops or evaporates directly form the moist soil. The salt,
however, is left behind in the soil. Therefore, unless removed, it accumulates in the soil. This
phenomenon is called salinization. A white layer of dry salt is sometimes observed on very salty soil.
Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization.

Most irrigation water contains some salts. After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the
crops or evaporates directly form the moist soil. The salt, however, is left behind the soil. Therefore,
unless removed, it accumulates in the soil. This phenomenon is called salinization. Salts in the irrigation
water or soil cause an adverse effect on crop production.

To sustain production of crops, irrigation procedures need to be adjusted to control the salts in the
soil, as well as controlling the salt concentration in the irrigation water. Electrolytic conductivity, cation
exchange capacity, sodium adsorption ratio and other physico-chemical parameters, are used for
assessing the salinity of soil and water. In order to mitigate the effects of salinization to maintain
agricultural productivity, several measures have been practiced. The rise of groundwater is mainly
caused by the capillary effect of the soil. Irrigation methods to avoid capillary rise have been developed.
The most widely used method to improve salinity is leaching. Also, salt- tolerant crops are developed
with the help of biotechnology, in order to be able to thrive in a saline environment.

Causes of Salinization
In many places in the world, the productivity of soil has deteriorated because of an excess of salt has
accumulated in the soil around the plant root zone. Large-scale soil salinization has mostly occurred in
arid and semi-arid regions. Soil affected by salt also widely exists in sub-humid and humid (i.e. high
rainfall) regions. Saline soil is particularly frequent in coastal areas since the soil in those areas is
exposed to seawater.

Even if the water is low in salinity, the salinity in the soil will increase if the water is used for irrigation
for a long time because the trace amount of salt gradually accumulates. Excessive salinity of the soil
surface and the root zone are typical properties of saline soils. The main source of salts in soil is exposed
bedrock in geologic strata in the Earth's crust. Salts are gradually released from the bedrock after
becoming soluble through physical and chemical weathering such as hydrolysis, hydration, dissolution,
oxidation, and carbonation. The released salts dissolve into the surface water or groundwater. As the
water with dissolved salts flows from humid regions to less humid or arid regions, salts in the water
are gradually concentrated.

The most dominant ions at the place where salts become soluble by weathering are carbonate and
bicarbonate of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, if carbon dioxide exists. At first, the salinity
of the water is low, but as the water flows from a humid area to a less humid area, it becomes higher
as the water evaporates. As the salts in the water are further concentrated, salts with lower solubility
start to precipitate. In addition, due to other mechanisms such as ion exchange, adsorption, and the
difference of mobility, the concentrations of chemical substances dissolved in the water gradually shift;
this always results in increased concentration of chloride and sodium ions in water and soil.

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EFFECTS OF SOIL DEGRADATION
1. Land degradation
Soil quality decline is one of the main causes of land degradation and is considered to be responsible
for 84% of the ever diminishing acreage. Year after year, huge acres of land lost due to soil erosion,
contamination and pollution. About 40% of the world’s agricultural land is severely diminished in
quality because of erosion and the use of chemical fertilizers, which prevent land from regenerating.
The decline in soil quality as a result of agricultural chemical fertilizers also further leads to water and
land pollutionthereby lowering the land’s worth on earth.
2. Drought and aridity
Drought and aridity are problems highly influenced and amplified by soil degradation. As much as it’s
a concern associated with natural environments in arid and semi-arid areas, the UN recognizes the fact
that drought and aridity are anthropogenic induced factors especially as an outcome of soil
degradation. Hence, the contributing factors to soil quality decline such as overgrazing, poor tillage
methods, and deforestation are also the leading causes of desertification characterized by droughts
and arid conditions. On the same context, soil degradation may also bring about loss of biodiversity.
3. Loss of arable land
Because soil degradation contributes to land degradation, it also means that it creates a significant loss
of arable land. As stated earlier, about 40% of the world’s agricultural land is lost on the account of soil
quality depreciation caused by agro-chemicals and soil erosion. Most of the crop production practices
result in the topsoil loss and the damage of soil’s natural composition that make agriculture possible.
4. Increased flooding
Land is commonly altered from its natural landscape when it rids its physical composition from soil
degradation. For this reason, the transformed land is unable to soak up water, making flooding more
frequent. In other words, soil degradation takes away the soil’s natural capability of holding water thus
contributing to more and more cases of flooding.
5. Pollution and clogging of waterways
Most of the soil eroded from the land together with the chemical fertilizers and pesticides utilized in
agricultural fields are discharged into waterways and streams. With time, the sedimentation process
can clog waterways, resulting in water scarcity. The agricultural fertilizers and pesticides also damage
marine and freshwater ecosystems and the limits the domestic uses of the water for the populations
that depend on them for survival.
SOLUTIONS OF SOIL DEGRADATION
1. Reducing deforestation
Avoiding deforestation completely is an uphill task. However, deforestation can be cut down and this
can create an impressive way of reshaping and restoring forests and vegetation cover. As populations
grow, individuals can be sensitized and educated regarding sustainable forest management and
reforestation efforts. Also, preserving the integrity of guarded areas can significantly reduce
demonstration.
Hence, there is a necessity for individuals all over the world to respect forest cover and reduce some
of the human-driven actions that encourage logging. With the reduction of deforestation, soil’s ability
to naturally regenerate can be restored. Governments, international organizations, and other
environmental stakeholders need to ensure there are appropriate measures for making zero net
deforestation a reality so as to inhibit soil degradation.
2. Land reclamation
The outcomes of soil erosion and quality decline are widely irreversible. Still, soil organic matter and
plant nutrients can be replenished. To restore the lost soil mineral matter and organic content, it would

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require what is known as land reclamation. Land reclamation encompasses activities centered towards
restoring the previous organic matter and soil’s vital minerals. This may include activities such as the
addition of plant residues to degraded soils and improving range management.
Salinized soils can be restored by salt level correction reclamation projects and salinity control. One of
the simplest but most forgotten methods of land reclamation is planting of vegetation such as trees,
crops, and flowers over the affected soils. Plants act as protective covers as they are helpful at making
the soil stronger by stabilizing the land surface.
3. Preventing salinization
Just like the old adage states that “prevention is better than cure,” so does the same concept apply in
solving the worldwide problem of soil degradation through salinization. The costs of preventing
salinization are incredibly cheaper than the reclamation projects in salinized areas. Consequently,
actions such as reducing irrigation, planting salt tolerant crops, and improving irrigation efficiency will
have high pay offs because the inputs and the labor-demanding aspects associated with reclamation
projects are zero. Preventing salanization in the first place is thus an environmentally friendly means
of offering solution to soil degradation.
4. Conservation tillage
Proper tillage mechanisms hold as one of the most sustainable ways of avoiding soil quality decline.
This is otherwise known as conservation tillage, which means tillage mechanisms targeted at making
very minimal changes to the soil’s natural condition and at the same time improving the soil’s
productivity. Examples include leaving the previous year’s crop residue on the surface to shield the soil
from erosion and avoiding poor tillage methods such as deep plowing.

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SOIL DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is defined as a process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas due
to various factors including climatic variations and human activities. Or, to put it in another way,
desertification results in persistent degradation of dryland and fragile ecosystems due to man-made
activities and variations in climate. Desertification, in short, is when land that was originally of another
type of biome turns into a desert biome because of changes of all sorts. A huge issue that many
countries have is the fact that there are large pockets of land that are going through a process that is
known as desertification.
Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Other factors that cause desertification
include urbanization, climate change, over drafting of ground water, deforestation, natural disasters
and tillage practices in agriculture that place soils more vulnerable to wind. Desertification affects
topsoil, groundwater reserves, surface runoff, human, animal and plant populations. Water scarcity in
drylands limits the production of wood, crops, forage and other services that ecosystems provide to
our community.
According to UNESCO, one third of world’s land surface is threatened by desertification and across the
world it affects livelihood of millions of people who depend on the benefits of ecosystems that drylands
provides. Desertification is another major environmental concern and a major barrier to meeting
human basic needs in drylands and are being constantly threatened by increases in human pressures
and climatic variability. In this article, we’re going to give you an idea as to what are the causes of
desertification, the effects that desertification has, and what we can do in order to deal with the
problem at hand. Let’s take a closer look at all of these topics.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
 Overgrazing: Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are starting to become desert
biomes. If there are too many animals that are overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for
the plants to grow back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green glory.
 Deforestation: When people are looking to move into an area, or they need trees in order to make
houses and do other tasks, then they are contributing to the problems related to desertification.
Without the plants (especially the trees) around, the rest of the biome cannot thrive.
 Farming Practices: Some farmers do not know how to use the land effectively. They may
essentially strip the land of everything that it has before moving on to another plot of land. By
stripping the soil of its nutrients, desertification becomes more and more of a reality for the area
that is being used for farming.
 Urbanization and other types of land development. As mentioned above, development can cause
people to go through and kill the plant life. It can also cause issues with the soil due to chemicals
and other things that may harm the ground. As areas become more urbanized, there are less
places for plants to grow, thus causing desertification.
 Climate Change: Climate change plays a huge role in desertification. As the days get warmer and
periods of drought become more frequent, desertification becomes more and more eminent.
Unless climate change is slowed down, huge areas of land will become desert; some of those areas
may even become uninhabitable as time goes on.
 Stripping the land of resources. If an area of land has natural resources like natural gas, oil, or
minerals, people will come in and mine it or take it out. This usually strips the soil of nutrients,
which in turn kills the plant life, which in turn starts the process toward becoming a desert biome
as time goes on.

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 Natural Disasters: There are some cases where the land gets damaged because of natural
disasters, including drought. In those cases, there isn’t a lot that people can do except work to try
and help rehabilitate the land after it has already been damaged by nature.

EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION
 Farming becomes next to impossible. If an area becomes a desert, then it’s almost impossible
to grow substantial crops there without special technologies. This can cost a lot of money to try
and do, so many farmers will have to sell their land and leave the desert areas.
 Hunger: Without farms in these areas, the food that those farms produce will become much
scarcer, and the people who live in those local areas will be a lot more likely to try and deal with
hunger problems. Animals will also go hungry, which will cause even more of a food shortage.
 Flooding: Without the plant life in an area, flooding is a lot more eminent. Not all deserts are dry;
those that are wet could experience a lot of flooding because there is nothing to stop the water
from gathering and going all over the place. Flooding can also negatively affect the water supply,
which we will discuss next.
 Poor Water Quality: If an area becomes a desert, the water quality is going to become a lot worse
than it would have been otherwise. This is because the plant life plays a significant role in keeping
the water clean and clear; without its presence, it becomes a lot more difficult for you to be able
to do that.
 Overpopulation: When areas start to become desert, animals and people will go to other areas
where they can actually thrive. This causes crowding and overpopulation, which will, in the long
run, end up continuing the cycle of desertification that started this whole thing anyway.
 Poverty: All of the issues that we’ve talked about above (related to the problem of
desertification) can lead to poverty if it is not kept in check. Without food and water, it becomes
harder for people to thrive, and they take a lot of time to try and get the things that they need.

SOLUTIONS FOR DESERTIFICATION

 Policy Changes Related to How People can Farm. In countries where policy change will actually
be enforced on those in the country, policy change related to how often people can farm and
how much they can farm on certain areas could be put into place to help reduce the problems
that are often associated with farming and desertification.
 Policy Changes to Other Types of Land Use. If people are using land to get natural resources or
they are developing it for people to live on, then the policies that govern them should be ones
that will help the land to thrive instead of allowing them to harm the land further. The policy
changes could be sweeping or they could be depending on the type of land use at hand.
 Education: In developing countries, education is an incredibly important tool that needs to be
utilized in order to help people to understand the best way to use the land that they are farming
on. By educating them on sustainable practices, more land will be saved from becoming desert.
 Technology Advances. In some cases, it’s difficult to try and prevent desertification from
happening. In those cases, there needs to be research and advancements in technology that push
the limits of what we currently know. Advancements could help us find more ways to prevent
the issue from becoming epidemic.
 Putting Together Rehabilitation Efforts. There are some ways that we can go back and
rehabilitate the land that we’ve already pushed into desertification; it just takes some investment
of time and money. By putting these together, we can prevent the issue from becoming even
more widespread in the areas that have already been affected.

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 Sustainable practices to prevent desertification from happening. There are plenty
of sustainable practices that can be applied to those acts that may be causing desertification. By
adding these to what we should be doing with land, we can ensure that we don’t turn the entire
world into a desert.

PREVENTIVE ACTIONS INCLUDE:

 Integrating land and water management to protect soils from erosion, salinization, and other
forms of degradation.
 Protecting the vegetative cover, which can be a major instrument for soil conservation against
wind and water erosion.
 Integrating the use of land for grazing and farming where conditions are favorable, allowing
for a more efficient cycling of nutrients within the agricultural systems.
 Applying a combination of traditional practices with locally acceptable and locally adapted land
use technologies.
 Giving local communities the capacity to prevent desertification and to manage dry land
resources effectively.
 Turning to alternative livelihoods that do not depend on traditional land uses, such as
dryland aquaculture, greenhouse agriculture and tourism-related activities, is less demanding
on local land and natural resources, and yet provides sustainable income.
 Creating economic opportunities in dryland urban centers and in areas outside of drylands

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SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is, at its core, a natural process. Put simply, it is when topsoil, which is the upper-most
layer of the ground, is moved from one spot to another. Why this matters is because topsoil is the part
of the land that is highest in organic matter and best suited for farming and other fertile activities,
which is why soil erosion can have the greatest impact on farmers and agricultural land. In other words,
soil erosion is a naturally occurring and slow process that refers to loss of field’s top soil by water and
wind or through conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural land.
When farming activities are carried out, the top soil is exposed and is often blown away by
wind or washed away by rain. When soil erosion occurs, the movement of the detached topsoil is
typically facilitated by either a natural process – such as wind or water movement – or by the impact
of man, such as through tilling farmland.
The process of soil erosion is made up of three parts:
 Detachment: This is when the topsoil is actually “detached” from the rest of the ground.
 Movement: This is when the topsoil is relocated to another area.
 Deposition: Where the topsoil ends up after this process.

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

1. Sheet erosion
 Rainfall on an artificially prepared soil especially on gently sloping fields, generally results in
sheet erosion. In this process, many soil grains are pounded loose and made free to float away
during the initial stages of rainfall.
 This process starts simultaneously over a large area so that after some time during the rains, a
huge thick sheet of water flows down the slope and hence it cause erosion of the top soil i.e.
uniform skimming of the top soil.
 Sheet erosion has been described as dangerous because this erosion cannot recognized easily
and thus it may continue for years without being realized.
2. Gully erosion
 This signifies formations and evolution of down slope valleys that develop on sloping soil due
to continued soil erosion.
 Gullying is a consequence of sheet erosion.
 Uniform sheet erosion over any surface for longer periods is impossible even on perfectly smooth
surfaces because neither the flow velocities over the entire surface could be uniform nor the
surface could be 'absolutely' perfect. Hence, rate of erosion along different paths would be
different creating conditions for excessive concentrated erosion along some paths.
 These paths of excessive erosion eventually develop into gulleys with the passage of time
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is a natural process which occur when there is loss of or removal of top layer of soil to due
to rain, wind, deforestation or any other human activity. Cause of soil erosion can be broken down into
two main categories:

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1. Erosion by Water
2. Erosion by Wind
1. Erosion by Water
 Rainfall Intensity and Runoff: The impact of raindrops will break up the soil and will create runoff
and thus takes sediment with it. i.e. More the intensity of rainfall more will be the soil erosion
 Distribution of rainfall and landscape: If the ground surface is such that rainfall distributes evenly
and if there is no plenty rainfall, then the erosion will be less.
 Soil Erodibility: Based on the characteristics of each unique soil, it is more or less susceptible to
erosion i.e. Small grain and open structure soil erodes more than the larger grain and closed
structure soil.
 Ground Slope: The steeper the slope, greater amount of soil can be lost. As the soil erodes
downward, it increases the slope degree, which in turn, creates further erosion. Steeper slope
ground erodes more than the ground having mild slope due to increased speed of run off than
infiltration.
 Vegetation: Vegetative cover of plants or crop residues protects the soil from raindrop impact
and splash. The less vegetation cover, the more erosion can occur.
 Deforestation: It is one of the major factors responsible for Soil erosion. Removal of forest covers
which function as a binder of the top layer of the soil, results in enhancing extent of soil erosion.
 Mismanaged utilization of soil resources: The soil erosion is enhanced by improper surface
drainage, removal of forest litter, overgrazing etc.
2. Erosion by Wind
 Erodibility of Soil: The finest particles are transported by the wind, while the heavier particles are
blown across the surface causing abrasion.
 Soil Surface Roughness: Soil surfaces that are not rough offer little resistance to wind erosion.
Excess tillage can contribute to the breakdown of soil.
 Climate: Soil moisture levels at the surface can become extremely low in times of drought and
thus increase tendency of particles to be carried by the wind. Conversely, this effect can occur in
freezing climates as well.
 Un-Sheltered Distance: The lack of windbreaks allows wind to transport particles a farther
distance, increasing abrasion and erosion.
 Vegetative Cover: Lack of permanent vegetation creates loose, dry, and barren soil that is perfect
for wind transport.
FACTORS AFFECTING EROSION
There are mainly three factors that will be affecting erosion
Natural factors:
1. Heavy rains on weak soil: Rain drops loosen soil particles and water transports them
down hill.
2. Vegetation depleted by drought: Rain drops are free to hit the soil, causing erosion
during rainfall. Winds blow away the fine particles during droughts.
3. Steep slopes: Gravity pulls harder: water flows faster, soil creeps, slips or slumps
downhill.
4. Rain fall: Erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as rainstorms become more severe.
5. Drought: Water dries up and the soil becomes a play ball of winds. A sudden rain
causes enormous damage.
6. Changing winds: Areas previously sheltered, become exposed.

Human-induced factors:
1. Change of land: The land loses its cover, then its soil biota, porosity and moisture.

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2. Intensive farming: The plough, excessive fertilizer and irrigation damage the land,
often permanently.
3. Housing development: Soil is barred; massive earthworks to landscape the
subdivision; soil is on the loose.

Road construction: Roads are cut; massive earth works, leaving scars behind. Not enough attention is
paid to rainwater flow and maintenance of road sides.

CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

Predominant causes of soil erosion are either related to naturally-occurring events or
influenced by the presence of human activity. Some of the principal causes of soil erosion include:
Natural Causes
 Rain and rainwater runoff: In a particular heavy rain, soil erosion is common. First of all, the water
starts to break down the soil, dispersing the materials it is made of. Typically, rainwater runoff will
impact lighter materials like silt, organic matter, and finer sand particles, but in heavy rainfall, this
can also include the larger material components as well.
 Farming: When land is worked through crops or other agricultural processes, it reduces the overall
structure of the soil, in addition to reducing the levels of organic matter, making it more susceptible
to the effects of rain and water. Tilling in particular, because it often breaks up and softens the
structure of soil, can be a major contributor to erosion. Farming practices that reduce this activity
tend to have far less issues with soil erosion.
 Slope of the land: The physical characteristics of the land can also contribute to soil erosion. For
example, land with a high hill slope will perpetuate the process of rainwater or runoff saturation
in the area, particularly due to the faster movement of the water down a slope.
 Lack of vegetation: Plants and crops help maintain the structure of soils, reducing the amount of
soil erosion. Areas with less naturally-occurring flora may be a hint that the soil is prone to erosion.
 Wind: Wind can be a major factor in reducing soil quality and promotion erosion, particularly if the
soil’s structure has already been loosened up. However, lighter winds will typically not cause too
much damage, if any. The most susceptible soil to this type of erosion is sandy or lighter soil that
can easily be transported through the air.
Human-Induced Causes of Soil Erosion
 Mining
Mining, one of the activities that enabled the growth of our economies, has severely scared the
face of our planet and destroyed many unique habitats without mercy. Some of the world’s largest
mines cut as deep as 0.75 miles into the earth’s surface and spread over an area of more than 2,000
acres.
 Deforestation
The rate of erosion in forests is naturally very low because complex root systems of trees anchor
the soil in place and fallen leaves or other green material offers a protective cover. But during the
deforestation when forests are clear cut or burned down in the ‘slash-and-burn’ practice, soil
stability is disturbed. And even though the soil was healthy and resistant prior deforestation, after
clearing, it will be easily washed away by rain.
 Recreational activities
Tourism and recreational activities often damage ecosystems, especially if the number of tourists
in a given area is greater than the ecosystem capacity to deal with it. In the most visited places,
tourists trample the vegetation around trails, slowly creating larger patches of vegetation free
surface. Frequently walked trails become compacted, which leads to the decreased soil
permeability and higher surface runoff. The combination of these factors then results in

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progressively eroding trails and areas around them as people try to avoid slippery or muddy surface
of the main trail.
 Climate change
Climate change comes with many changes for our planet and the environment. One of the most
talked about effects of climate change is a changing rainfall pattern. With some areas getting more
frequently heavy rains and other areas suffering of prolonged droughts, the risk of erosion is
expected to rise around the world.
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
A major problem with soil erosion is that there is no telling how quickly or slowly it will occur.
If largely impacted by ongoing weather or climate events, it may be a slow-developing process that is
never even noticed. However, a severe weather occurrence or other experience can contribute to
rapid-moving erosion, which can cause great harm to the area and its inhabitants.
On-Site Effects of Erosion
Some of the greatest effects of soil erosion include:
 Loss of topsoil: Obviously, this is the biggest effect of soil erosion. Because topsoil is so fertile, if it
is removed, this can cause serious harm to farmer’s crops or the ability to effectively work their
land.
 Soil compaction: When soil under the topsoil becomes compacted and stiff, it reduces the ability
for water to infiltrate these deeper levels, keeping runoff at greater levels, which increases the risk
of more serious erosion.
 Reduced organic and fertile matter: As mentioned, removing topsoil that is heavy with organic
matter will reduce the ability for the land to regenerate new flora or crops. When new crops or
plants can’t be placed successfully in the area, this perpetuates a cycle of reduced levels of organic
nutrients.
 Poor drainage: Sometimes too much compaction with sand can lead to an effective crust that seals
in the surface layer, making it even harder for water to pass through to deeper layers. In some
ways, this can help erosion because of the densely packed soil, but if it perpetuates greater levels
of runoff from rainwater or flooding, it can negatively impact the crucial topsoil.
 Issues with plant reproduction: When soil is eroded in an active cropland, wind in particular makes
lighter soil properties such as new seeds and seedlings to be buried or destroyed. This, in turn,
impacts future crop production.
 Soil acidity levels: When the structure of the soil becomes compromised, and organic matter is
greatly reduced, there is a higher chance of increased soil acidity, which will significantly impact
the ability for plants and crops to grow.
 Long term erosion: Unfortunately, if an area is prone to erosion or has a history of it, it becomes
even harder to protect it in the future. The process has already reduced the soil structure and
organic matter of the area, meaning that it will be harder to recover in the long run.
 Water pollution: A major problem with runoff from soils – particularly those used for agricultural
processes – is that there is a greater likelihood that sediment and contamination like the use of
fertilizer or pesticide. This can have significant damage on fish and water quality.
Off-Site Effects of Erosion
 Water pollution and sedimentation
The major off-site problem caused by erosion is the deposition of eroded soil, along with pollutants
it picked up, into watercourses. This causes two serious problems:
1. Water pollution by heavy metals, agricultural chemicals and other contaminants
2. Sedimentation in water bodies

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Besides introducing new pollutants in the water, soil transported into water bodies disrupts aquatic
ecosystems by changing chemical and physical properties of water. Agricultural fertilizers can
cause eutrophication and mass dying of aquatic life. Increasing sediment loads can block rivers and
dams, eventually leading to mud floods and further damage to surrounding ecosystems and built
structures.
High sedimentation rates also damage hydro-electricity plants and decrease the lifetime of
constructed water reservoirs. Additional problem is the pollution of drinking water supply, which
requires extra investment into removing impurities and making water suitable for drinking again.
 Flooding
The deposition of silt in water courses often obstructs their natural path. This increases the risk of
flooding and further enhances erosion of water banks, since the water seeks the way to flow
around a newly created obstruction.
Disturbed soils also do not absorb water as much as they naturally would. Deforested areas
turn into arable lands or overgrazed pastures lose their ability to effectively capture and retain
water. Higher surface runoff then swells water streams to bigger size and floods become more
frequent and extensive even in areas where they haven’t occurred ever before.
 Airborne dust pollution
Wind erosion has the power to cause widespread air pollution that can affect places hundreds or
even thousands of miles away from the original site of erosion. There are numerous cases
describing its suffocating effects.
Wind-blown dust particles do not harm only the health of people and animals; they also
damage young plants and crops. Wind often picks up fine particles of sand, silt and organic matter
and buries or breaks seedlings, while exposing seeds or plant roots in other places. This leaves
behind weak and vulnerable crops that cannot provide sufficient yield.
 Damage to infrastructure
Whether it is a damage caused by flooded rivers, roads and rails torn apart by sliding land or dams
cracking under the burden of accumulating sediments, soil erosion can gradually and certainly
somewhat sneakily destroy many built structures. In fact, to predict the future rate of erosion when
planning a new construction project is extremely difficult, since there are so many possible triggers.
SOLUTIONS FOR SOIL EROSION

When it comes to finding solutions for soil erosion, the most useful techniques found tend to
be those that emphasize reinforcing the structure of the soil, and reducing processes that affect it.
 Careful tilling: Because tilling activity breaks up the structure of soil, doing less tilling with
fewer passes will preserve more of the crucial topsoil.
 Crop rotation: Plenty of crop rotation is crucial for keeping land happy and healthy. This
allows organic matter to build up, making future plantings more fertile.
 Increased structure for plants: Introducing terraces or other means of stabilizing plant life
or even the soil around them can help reduce the chance that the soil loosens and erodes.
Boosting areas that are prone to erosion with sturdy plant life can be a great way to stave
off future effects.
 Water control: For those areas where soil erosion is predominantly caused by water –
whether natural or man-made – specialized chutes and runoff pipes can help to direct
these water sources away from the susceptible areas, helping stave off excess erosion.
Having these filters in particular areas rather than leading to natural bodies of water is a
focus to reduce pollution.
 Increased knowledge: A major factor for preventing soil erosion is educating more and
more people who work with the land on why it is a concern, and what they can do to help
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reduce it. This means outreach to farmers in susceptible areas for ways that they can help
protect crops from inclement weather, or ways that they can help make sure their soil
remains compact without restricting their plant growing activities.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION
Methods adopted for prevention and control of soil erosion fall under two categories: agronomic
practices and engineering practices.
Agronomic Practices
 By agronomic practice it means the protection of the top soil by special methods and schemes of
crop cultivation.
 These include:
(i) Crop Rotation
 In which different crops are grown in the same area by rotation, that is, one after another.
 A sequence commonly followed is, for example, a cultivated crop, a small grain and then grass.
After this, cultivated crop may again be sown.
(ii) Strip Cropping
 In which the cultivated crops and the cover crops are sown in alternate strips during the same
period in the same field.
Engineering Practices
The engineering methods most widely used for combating soil erosion include:
(i) Excavation of ditches
 These can be described as artificially created channels excavated at suitable locations to divert
the excess of water from approaching the affected areas, especially in steeply sloping regions.
 Two types of ditches commonly made for controlling soil erosion are:
(a) Diversion Ditches which are excavated above the cultivated portion of a sloping area with
a view of diverting the run off away from the field.
(b) Interception Ditches – These are made at regular and suitable intervals across the cultivated
field. By draining water from small strips, these ditches do not allow the formation of thick
sheets of water capable of doing soil erosion.

(ii) Terrace Construction

 These are constructed along suitable locations across the slope of hillsides with essential
function of collecting and conducting the run-off to an erosion-proof outlet.
 Spacing of terraces along the slope requires careful consideration. First terrace is generally built
near enough to the upper limit of the slope.
 This prevents the initiation of erosion. Terraces should always be uniformly graded as to prevent
ponding of water on the one hand and development of erosional velocities on the other hand.

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(iii) Check Dams.

 Small check dams constructed out of various materials like stones, timber and steel etc. prevent
gullying.
 Such dams serve the purpose of reducing the velocity of run-off and cause deposition of the
material which may ultimately support vegetation. This may contribute positively for controlling
gullying, especially when vegetation is re-established.

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Prepared By

NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
MEA Engineering College

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