CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
.

Unit-1:Data Preprocessing, Language, Architectures, Concept Description:

Preprocessing, Cleaning, Integration, Transformation, Reduction, Discretization,
Concept Hierarchy Generation, Data Mining Primitives, Query Language, Graphical
User Interfaces, Architectures, Concept Description, Data Generalization,
Characterizations, Class Comparisons, Descriptive Statistical Measures

What motivated data mining? Why is it important?

The major reason that data mining has attracted a great deal of attention in
information industry in recent years is due to the wide availability of huge amounts
of data and the imminent need for turning such data into useful information and
knowledge. The information and knowledge gained can be used for applications
ranging from business management, production control, and market analysis, to
engineering design and science exploration.

The evolution of database technology

What is data mining?

Data mining refers to extracting or mining" knowledge from large amounts of

data. There are many other terms related to data mining, such as knowledge
mining, knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archaeology, and data

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
dredging. Many people treat data mining as a synonym for another popularly used
term, Knowledge Discovery in Databases", or KDD

Essential step in the process of knowledge discovery in databases

Knowledge discovery as a process is depicted in following figure and consists of an

iterative sequence of the following steps:

data cleaning: to remove noise or irrelevant data

data integration: where multiple data sources may be combined
data selection: where data relevant to the analysis task are retrieved from
the database
data transformation: where data are transformed or consolidated into forms
appropriate for mining by performing summary or aggregation operations
data mining :an essential process where intelligent methods are applied in
order to extract data patterns
pattern evaluation to identify the truly interesting patterns representing
knowledge based on some interestingness measures
knowledge presentation: where visualization and knowledge representation
techniques are used to present the mined knowledge to the user.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

ARCHITECTURE OF A TYPICAL DATA MINING SYSTEM/MAJOR COMPONENTS

1. Explain the Architecture of data mining system. (11 Marks Nov

2012,April 2013)

2. Briefly explain the integration of a data mining system with a

database or datawarehouse system.(11 Marks April 2013)

Data mining is the process of discovering interesting knowledge from

large amounts of data stored either in databases, data warehouses, or other
information repositories. Based on this view, the architecture of a typical data
mining system may have the following major components:

1. A database, data warehouse, or other information repository, which

consists of the set of databases, data warehouses, spreadsheets, or other
kinds of information repositories containing the student and course
information.
2. A database or data warehouse server which fetches the relevant data
based on users data mining requests.
3. A knowledge base that contains the domain knowledge used to guide the
search or to evaluate the interestingness of resulting patterns. For
example, the knowledge base may contain metadata which describes data
from multiple heterogeneous sources.
4. A data mining engine, which consists of a set of functional modules for
tasks such as classification, association, classification, cluster analysis,
and evolution and deviation analysis.
5. A pattern evaluation module that works in tandem with the data mining
modules by employing interestingness measures to help focus the search
towards interestingness patterns.
6. A graphical user interface that allows the user an interactive approach to
the data mining system.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

How is a data warehouse different from a database? How are they similar?

Differences between a data warehouse and a database: A data warehouse is a

repository of information collected from multiple sources, over a history of time,
stored under a unified schema, and used for data analysis and decision support;
whereas a database, is a collection of interrelated data that represents the current
status of the stored data. There could be multiple heterogeneous databases where
the schema of one database may not agree with the schema of another. A database
system supports ad-hoc query and on-line transaction processing. For more
details, please refer to the section Differences between operational
database systems and data warehouses.

Similarities between a data warehouse and a database: Both are repositories of

information, storing huge amounts of persistent data.

Data mining: on what kind of data? / Describe the following

advanced database systems and applications: object-relational databases,
spatial databases, text databases, multimedia databases, the World Wide
Web.

In principle, data mining should be applicable to any kind of information

repository. This includes relational databases, data warehouses, transactional
databases, advanced database systems, flat files, and the World-Wide Web.
Advanced database systems include object-oriented and object-relational

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
databases, and special c application-oriented databases, such as spatial databases,
time-series databases, text databases, and multimedia databases.

Flat files: Flat files are actually the most common data source for data
mining algorithms, especially at the research level. Flat files are simple data files in
text or binary format with a structure known by the data mining algorithm to be
applied. The data in these files can be transactions, time-series data, scientific
measurements, etc.

Relational Databases: a relational database consists of a set of tables

containing either values of entity attributes, or values of attributes from entity
relationships. Tables have columns and rows, where columns represent attributes
and rows represent tuples. A tuple in a relational table corresponds to either an
object or a relationship between objects and is identified by a set of attribute values
representing a unique key. In following figure it presents some relations Customer,
Items, and Borrow representing business activity in a video store. These relations
are just a subset of what could be a database for the video store and is given as an
example.

The most commonly used query language for relational database is SQL,
which allows retrieval and manipulation of the data stored in the tables, as well as
the calculation of aggregate functions such as average, sum, min, max and count.
For instance, an SQL query to select the videos grouped by category would be:

SELECT count(*) FROM Items WHERE type=video GROUP BY category.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Data mining algorithms using relational databases can be more versatile than
data mining algorithms specifically written for flat files, since they can take
advantage of the structure inherent to relational databases. While data mining can
benefit from SQL for data selection, transformation and consolidation, it goes
beyond what SQL could provide, such as predicting, comparing, detecting
deviations, etc.

Data warehouses

A data warehouse is a repository of information collected from multiple

sources, stored under a unified schema, and which usually resides at a single site.
Data warehouses are constructed via a process of data cleansing, data
transformation, data integration, data loading, and periodic data refreshing. The
figure shows the basic architecture of a data warehouse

In order to facilitate decision making, the data in a data warehouse are

organized around major subjects, such as customer, item, supplier, and activity. The
data are stored to provide information from a historical perspective and are typically
summarized.

A data warehouse is usually modeled by a multidimensional database

structure, where each dimension corresponds to an attribute or a set of attributes in
the schema, and each cell stores the value of some aggregate measure, such as
count or sales amount. The actual physical structure of a data warehouse may be a
relational data store or a multidimensional data cube. It provides a multidimensional
view of data and allows the precomputation and fast accessing of summarized data.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

The data cube structure that stores the primitive or lowest level of
information is called a base cuboid. Its corresponding higher level multidimensional
(cube) structures are called (non-base) cuboids. A base cuboid together with all of
its corresponding higher level cuboids form a data cube. By providing
multidimensional data views and the precomputation of summarized data, data
warehouse systems are well suited for On-Line Analytical Processing, or OLAP. OLAP
operations make use of background knowledge regarding the domain of the data
being studied in order to allow the presentation of data at different levels of
abstraction. Such operations accommodate different user viewpoints. Examples of
OLAP operations include drill-down and roll-up, which allow the user to view the
data at differing degrees of summarization, as illustrated in above figure.

Transactional databases

In general, a transactional database consists of a flat file where each record

represents a transaction. A transaction typically includes a unique transaction
identity number (trans ID), and a list of the items making up the transaction (such
as items purchased in a store) as shown below:

Advanced database systems and advanced database applications

An objected-oriented database is designed based on the object-oriented

programming paradigm where data are a large number of objects organized into
Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering
and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
classes and class hierarchies. Each entity in the database is considered as an
object. The object contains a set of variables that describe the object, a set of
messages that the object can use to communicate with other objects or with the
rest of the database system and a set of methods where each method holds the
code to implement a message.

A spatial database contains spatial-related data, which may be represented in

the form of raster or vector data. Raster data consists of n-dimensional bit maps or
pixel maps, and vector data are represented by lines, points, polygons or other
kinds of processed primitives, Some examples of spatial databases include
geographical (map) databases, VLSI chip designs, and medical and satellite images
databases.

Time-Series Databases: Time-series databases contain time related data such

stock market data or logged activities. These databases usually have a continuous
flow of new data coming in, which sometimes causes the need for a challenging real
time analysis. Data mining in such databases commonly includes the study of
trends and correlations between evolutions of different variables, as well as the
prediction of trends and movements of the variables in time.

A text database is a database that contains text documents or other word

descriptions in the form of long sentences or paragraphs, such as product
specifications, error or bug reports, warning messages, summary reports, notes, or
other documents.

A multimedia database stores images, audio, and video data, and is used in
applications such as picture content-based retrieval, voice-mail systems, video-on-
demand systems, the World Wide Web, and speech-based user interfaces.

The World-Wide Web provides rich, world-wide, on-line information services,

where data objects are linked together to facilitate interactive access. Some
examples of distributed information services associated with the World-Wide Web
include America Online, Yahoo!, AltaVista, and Prodigy.

Data mining functionalities/Data mining tasks: what kinds of patterns can

be mined?

Data mining functionalities are used to specify the kind of patterns to be

found in data mining tasks. In general, data mining tasks can be classified into two
categories:

Descriptive (2 Marks April 2013)

Predictive

Descriptive mining tasks characterize the general properties of the data in

the database. Predictive mining tasks perform inference on the current data in
order to make predictions.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

CONCEPT DESCRIPTION

1. Distinguish between characterization and discrimination.(2 Marks

Nov 2015)

1 Concept/class description: characterization and discrimination

Data can be associated with classes or concepts. It describes a given set of data in
a concise and summarative manner, presenting interesting general properties of the
data. These descriptions can be derived via

1. data characterization, by summarizing the data of the class under

study (often called the target class)
2. data discrimination, by comparison of the target class with one or a set
of comparative classes
3. both data characterization and discrimination

Data characterization

It is a summarization of the general characteristics or features of a target class of

data.

Example:

A data mining system should be able to produce a description summarizing the

characteristics of a student who has obtained more than 75% in every semester;
the result could be a general profile of the student.

Data Discrimination is a comparison of the general features of target class data

objects with the general features of objects from one or a set of contrasting classes.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Example

The general features of students with high GPAs may be compared with the general
features of students with low GPAs. The resulting description could be a general
comparative profile of the students such as 75% of the students with high GPAs are
fourth-year computing science students while 65% of the students with low GPAs
are not.

The output of data characterization can be presented in various forms. Examples

include pie charts, bar charts, curves, multidimensional data cubes, and
multidimensional tables, including crosstabs. The resulting descriptions can also be
presented as generalized relations, or in rule form called characteristic rules.

Discrimination descriptions expressed in rule form are referred to as discriminant

rules.

Are all of the patterns interesting? / What makes a pattern interesting?

A pattern is interesting if,

(1) It is easily understood by humans,

(2) Valid on new or test data with some degree of certainty,

(3) Potentially useful, and

(4) Novel.

A pattern is also interesting if it validates a hypothesis that the user sought to

confirm. An interesting pattern represents knowledge.

Classification of data mining systems

There are many data mining systems available or being developed. Some are
specialized systems dedicated to a given data source or are confined to limited data
mining functionalities, other are more versatile and comprehensive. Data mining
systems can be categorized according to various criteria among other classification
are the following:

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Classification according to the type of data source mined: this classification
categorizes data mining systems according to the type of data handled such as
spatial data, multimedia data, time-series data, text data, World Wide Web, etc.

Classification according to the data model drawn on: this classification

categorizes data mining systems based on the data model involved such as
relational database, object-oriented database, data warehouse, transactional, etc.

Classification according to the king of knowledge discovered: this

classification categorizes data mining systems based on the kind of knowledge
discovered or data mining functionalities, such as characterization, discrimination,
association, classification, clustering, etc. Some systems tend to be comprehensive
systems offering several data mining functionalities together.

Classification according to mining techniques used: Data mining systems

employ and provide different techniques. This classification categorizes data mining
systems according to the data analysis approach used such as machine learning,
neural networks, genetic algorithms, statistics, visualization, database oriented or
data warehouse-oriented, etc. The classification can also take into account the
degree of user interaction involved in the data mining process such as query-driven
systems, interactive exploratory systems, or autonomous systems. A
comprehensive system would provide a wide variety of data mining techniques to
fit different situations and options, and offer different degrees of user interaction.

DATA MINING TASK PRIMITIVES

1. Explain about Data Mining Task Primitives.(11 Marks Nov 2012,May

2014).

2. State the data mining primitives and list the advantages of data
mining over other approaches of analyzing data. (6 Marks Nov 2015)

Five primitives for specifying a data mining task

Task-relevant data: This primitive specifies the data upon which mining is to be
performed. It involves specifying the database and tables or data warehouse
containing the relevant data, conditions for selecting the relevant data, the relevant
attributes or dimensions for exploration, and instructions regarding the ordering or
grouping of the data retrieved.

Knowledge type to be mined: This primitive specifies the specific data mining
function to be performed, such as characterization, discrimination, association,
classification, clustering, or evolution analysis. As well, the user can be more

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
specific and provide pattern templates that all discovered patterns must match.
These templates or meta patterns (also called meta rules or meta queries), can be
used to guide the discovery process.

Background knowledge: This primitive allows users to specify knowledge they

have about the domain to be mined. Such knowledge can be used to guide the
knowledge discovery process and evaluate the patterns that are found. Of the
several kinds of background knowledge, this chapter focuses on concept
hierarchies.

Pattern interestingness measure: This primitive allows users to specify

functions that are used to separate uninteresting patterns from knowledge and may
be used to guide the mining process, as well as to evaluate the discovered patterns.
This allows the user to confine the number of uninteresting patterns returned by the
process, as a data mining process may generate a large number of patterns.
Interestingness measures can be specified for such pattern characteristics as
simplicity, certainty, utility and novelty.

Visualization of discovered patterns: This primitive refers to the form in which

discovered patterns are to be displayed. In order for data mining to be effective in
conveying knowledge to users, data mining systems should be able to display the
discovered patterns in multiple forms such as rules, tables, cross tabs (cross-
tabulations), pie or bar charts, decision trees, cubes or other visual representations.

Major issues in data mining

Major issues in data mining is regarding mining methodology, user interaction,

performance, and diverse data types

1 Mining methodology and user-interaction issues:

_ Mining different kinds of knowledge in databases: Since different users can be

interested in different kinds of knowledge, data mining should cover a wide
spectrum of data analysis and knowledge discovery tasks, including data
characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering, trend and
deviation analysis, and similarity analysis. These tasks may use the same database
in different ways and require the development of numerous data mining techniques.

_ Interactive mining of knowledge at multiple levels of abstraction: Since it

is difficult to know exactly what can be discovered within a database, the data
mining process should be interactive.

_ Incorporation of background knowledge: Background knowledge, or

information regarding the domain under study, may be used to guide the discovery
patterns. Domain knowledge related to databases, such as integrity constraints and

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
deduction rules, can help focus and speed up a data mining process, or judge the
interestingness of discovered patterns.

_ Data mining query languages and ad-hoc data mining: Knowledge in

Relational query languages (such as SQL) required since it allow users to pose ad-
hoc queries for data retrieval.

_ Presentation and visualization of data mining results: Discovered

knowledge should be expressed in high-level languages, visual representations, so
that the knowledge can be easily understood and directly usable by humans

_ Handling outlier or incomplete data: The data stored in a database may

reflect outliers: noise, exceptional cases, or incomplete data objects. These objects
may confuse the analysis process, causing over fitting of the data to the knowledge
model constructed. As a result, the accuracy of the discovered patterns can be poor.
Data cleaning methods and data analysis methods which can handle outliers are
required.

_ Pattern evaluation: refers to interestingness of pattern: A data mining

system can uncover thousands of patterns. Many of the patterns discovered may be
uninteresting to the given user, representing common knowledge or lacking novelty.
Several challenges remain regarding the development of techniques to assess the
interestingness of discovered patterns,

2. Performance issues. These include efficiency, scalability, and parallelization of

data mining algorithms.

_ Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms: To effectively extract

information from a huge amount of data in databases, data mining algorithms must
be efficient and scalable.

_ Parallel, distributed, and incremental updating algorithms: Such

algorithms divide the data into partitions, which are processed in parallel. The
results from the partitions are then merged.

3. Issues relating to the diversity of database types

_ Handling of relational and complex types of data: Since relational databases

and data warehouses are widely used, the development of efficient and effective
data mining systems for such data is important.

_ Mining information from heterogeneous databases and global

information systems: Local and wide-area computer networks (such as the
Internet) connect many sources of data, forming huge, distributed, and
heterogeneous databases. The discovery of knowledge from different sources of
structured, semi-structured, or unstructured data with diverse data semantics poses
great challenges to data mining.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
DATA PREPROCESSING

1. Discuss with example, issues and purpose of the various data

preprocessing techniques, cleaning, transformation, data reduction,
discretization and integration. (11 Marks May 2014)

2. Define Data Preprocessing. (2Marks April 2014)

3. State the importance of data preprocessing before data mining. (2

Marks Nov 2015)

Data preprocessing describes any type of processing performed on raw data

to prepare it for another processing procedure. Commonly used as a preliminary
data mining practice, data preprocessing transforms the data into a format that will
be more easily and effectively processed for the purpose of the user.

Why Data Preprocessing?

Data in the real world is dirty. It can be in incomplete, noisy and inconsistent
from. These data needs to be preprocessed in order to help improve the quality of
the data, and quality of the mining results.

If no quality data, then no quality mining results. The quality decision is always
based on the quality data.
If there is much irrelevant and redundant information present or noisy and
unreliable data, then knowledge discovery during the training phase is more
difficult

Incomplete data: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest, or

containing only aggregate data. e.g., occupation= .

Noisy data: containing errors or outliers data. e.g., Salary=-10

Inconsistent data: containing discrepancies in codes or names. e.g., Age=42

Birthday=03/07/1997

Incomplete data may come from

Not applicable data value when collected
Different considerations between the time when the data was collected and
when it is analyzed.
Human/hardware/software problems
Noisy data (incorrect values) may come from
Faulty data collection by instruments
Human or computer error at data entry
Errors in data transmission
Inconsistent data may come from
Different data sources

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Functional dependency violation (e.g., modify some linked data)

Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing:

Data cleaning

Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and
resolve inconsistencies

Data integration

Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files

Data transformation

Normalization and aggregation

Data reduction

Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same or similar

analytical results

Data discretization

Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for numerical
data

Forms of Data Preprocessing

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Data cleaning

Data cleaning routines attempt to fill in missing values, smooth out noise while
identifying outliers, and correct inconsistencies in the data.

Various methods for handling this problem:

The various methods for handling the problem of missing values in data tuples
include:

(a) Ignoring the tuple: This is usually done when the class label is missing
(assuming the mining task involves classification or description). This method is not
very effective unless the tuple contains several
attributes with missing values. It is especially poor when the percentage of missing
values per attribute
varies considerably.
(b) Manually filling in the missing value: In general, this approach is time-
consuming and may not be a reasonable task for large data sets with many missing
values, especially when the value to be filled in is not easily determined.
(c) Using a global constant to fill in the missing value: Replace all missing
attribute values by the same constant, such as a label like Unknown, or . If
missing values are replaced by, say, Unknown, then the mining program may
mistakenly think that they form an interesting concept, since they all have a value

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
in common that of Unknown. Hence, although this method is simple, it is not
recommended.
(d) Using the attribute mean for quantitative (numeric) values or
attribute mode for categorical (nominal) values, for all samples belonging
to the same class as the given tuple: For example, if classifying customers
according to credit risk, replace the missing value with the average income value
for customers in the same credit risk category as that of the given tuple.
(e) Using the most probable value to fill in the missing value: This may be
determined with regression, inference-based tools using Bayesian formalism, or
decision tree induction. For example, using the other customer attributes in your
data set, you may construct a decision tree to predict the missing values for
income.

Noisy data:

Noise is a random error or variance in a measured variable. Data smoothing

tech is used for removing such noisy data.

Discuss methods of Data Smoothing (6 Marks Nov 2013)

Several Data smoothing techniques:

1 Binning methods: Binning methods smooth a sorted data value by consulting

the neighborhood", or values around it. The sorted values are distributed into a
number of 'buckets', or bins. Because binning methods consult the neighborhood of
values, they perform local smoothing.

In this technique,

1. The data for first sorted

2. Then the sorted list partitioned into equi-depth of bins.
3. Then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin
boundaries, etc.
a. Smoothing by bin means: Each value in the bin is replaced by the
mean value of the bin.
b. Smoothing by bin medians: Each value in the bin is replaced by the
bin median.
c. Smoothing by boundaries: The min and max values of a bin are
identified as the bin boundaries. Each bin value is replaced by the
closest boundary value.
Example: Binning Methods for Data Smoothing

o Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29,
34

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
o Partition into (equi-depth) bins(equi depth of 3 since each bin contains
three values):
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15

- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25

- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34

o Smoothing by bin means:

- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9

- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23

- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29

o Smoothing by bin boundaries:

- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15

- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25

- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34

In smoothing by bin means, each value in a bin is replaced by the mean value
of the bin. For example, the mean of the values 4, 8, and 15 in Bin 1 is 9. Therefore,
each original value in this bin is replaced by the value 9. Similarly, smoothing by bin
medians can be employed, in which each bin value is replaced by the bin median. In
smoothing by bin boundaries, the minimum and maximum values in a given bin are
identified as the bin boundaries. Each bin value is then replaced by the closest
boundary value.

Suppose that the data for analysis include the attribute age. The age values for the
data tuples are (in increasing order): 13, 15, 16, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22, 25, 25,
25, 25, 30, 33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 35, 36, 40, 45, 46, 52, 70.

(a) Use smoothing by bin means to smooth the above data, using a bin depth of 3.
Illustrate your steps.
Comment on the effect of this technique for the given data.

The following steps are required to smooth the above data using smoothing
by bin means with a bin
depth of 3.

Step 1: Sort the data. (This step is not required here as the data are already
sorted.)

Step 2: Partition the data into equidepth bins of depth 3.

Bin 1: 13, 15, 16 Bin 2: 16, 19, 20 Bin 3: 20, 21, 22

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Bin 4: 22, 25, 25 Bin 5: 25, 25, 30 Bin 6: 33, 33, 35
Bin 7: 35, 35, 35 Bin 8: 36, 40, 45 Bin 9: 46, 52, 70

Step 3: Calculate the arithmetic mean of each bin.

Step 4: Replace each of the values in each bin by the arithmetic mean calculated
for the bin.
Bin 1: 14, 14, 14 Bin 2: 18, 18, 18 Bin 3: 21, 21, 21
Bin 4: 24, 24, 24 Bin 5: 26, 26, 26 Bin 6: 33, 33, 33
Bin 7: 35, 35, 35 Bin 8: 40, 40, 40 Bin 9: 56, 56, 56

2 Clustering: Outliers in the data may be detected by clustering, where similar

values are organized into groups, or clusters. Values that fall outside of the set of
clusters may be considered outliers.

3 Regression : smooth by fitting the data into regression functions.

Linear regression involves finding the best of line to fit two variables,
so that one variable can be used to predict the other.

Multiple linear regression is an extension of linear regression, where

more than two variables are involved and the data are fit to a
multidimensional surface.

Using regression to find a mathematical equation to fit the data helps smooth out
the noise.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Field overloading: is a kind of source of errors that typically occurs when
developers compress new attribute definitions into unused portions of already
defined attributes.

Unique rule is a rule says that each value of the given attribute must be different
from all other values of that attribute

Consecutive rule is a rule says that there can be no missing values between the
lowest and highest values of the attribute and that all values must also be unique.

Null rule specifies the use of blanks, question marks, special characters or other
strings that may indicate the null condition and how such values should be handled.

Data Integration

1. Discuss the issues to be considered in Data Integration. (6 Marks

Nov 2013)

It combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store. There are
number of issues to consider during data integration.

Issues:

Schema integration: refers integration of metadata from different sources.

Entity identification problem: Identifying entity in one data source similar
to entity in another table. For example, customer_id in one db and
customer_no in another db refer to the same entity
Detecting and resolving data value conflicts: Attribute values from
different sources can be different due to different representations, different
scales. E.g. metric vs. British units
Redundancy: is another issue while performing data integration.
Redundancy can occur due to the following reasons:
Object identification: The same attribute may have different names in
different db
Derived Data: one attribute may be derived from another attribute.

Handling redundant data in data integration

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
1. Correlation analysis

For numeric data

Some redundancy can be identified by correlation analysis. The correlation between

two variables A and B can be measured by

The result of the equation is > 0, then A and B are positively correlated,
which means the value of A increases as the values of B increases. The
higher value may indicate redundancy that may be removed.
The result of the equation is = 0, then A and B are independent and there is
no correlation between them.
If the resulting value is < 0, then A and B are negatively correlated where the
values of one attribute increase as the value of one attribute decrease which
means each attribute may discourages each other.

-also called Pearsons product moment coefficient

For categorical data

Example:

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Data Transformation

Define Data Generalization.(2 Marks April 2014)

Data transformation can involve the following:

Smoothing: which works to remove noise from the data

Aggregation: where summary or aggregation operations are applied to the
data. For example, the daily sales data may be aggregated so as to compute
weekly and annual total scores.

Generalization of the data: where low-level or primitive (raw) data are

replaced by higher-level concepts through the use of concept hierarchies. For
example, categorical attributes, like street, can be generalized to higher-level
concepts, like city or country.

Normalization: where the attribute data are scaled so as to fall within a

small specified range, such as 1.0 to 1.0, or 0.0 to 1.0.

Attribute construction (feature construction): this is where new

attributes are constructed and added from the given set of attributes to help
the mining process

Normalization

In which data are scaled to fall within a small, specified range, useful for
classification algorithms involving neural networks, distance measurements such as
nearest neighbor classification and clustering. There are 3 methods for data
normalization. They are:

min-max normalization
z-score normalization
normalization by decimal scaling

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Min-max normalization: performs linear transformation on the original data
values. It can be defined as,
v minA
v' (new _ maxA new _ minA) new _ minA
maxA minA

v is the value to be normalized

minA,maxA are minimum and maximum values of an attribute A
new_ maxA, new_ minA are the normalization range.

Z-score normalization / zero-mean normalization: In which values of an

attribute A are normalized based on the mean and standard deviation of A. It can be
defined as,
v meanA
v'
stand _ devA
This method is useful when min and max value of attribute A are unknown or when
outliers that are dominate min-max normalization.

Normalization by decimal scaling: normalizes by moving the decimal point of

values of attribute A. The number of decimal points moved depends on the
maximum absolute value of A. A value v of A is normalized to v by computing,

Data Reduction techniques

These techniques can be applied to obtain a reduced representation of the data

set that is much smaller in volume, yet closely maintains the integrity of the original
data. Data reduction includes,

1. Data cube aggregation, where aggregation operations are applied to the

data in the construction of a data cube.
2. Attribute subset selection, where irrelevant, weakly relevant or redundant
attributes or dimensions may be detected and removed.

3. Dimensionality reduction, where encoding mechanisms are used to reduce

the data set size. Examples: Wavelet Transforms Principal Components
Analysis

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
4. Numerosity reduction, where the data are replaced or estimated by
alternative, smaller data representations such as parametric models (which
need store only the model parameters instead of the actual data) or
nonparametric methods such as clustering, sampling, and the use of
histograms.

5. Discretization and concept hierarchy generation, where raw data

values for attributes are replaced by ranges or higher conceptual levels. Data
discretization is a form of numerosity reduction that is very useful for the
automatic generation of concept hierarchies.

Data cube aggregation: Reduce the data to the concept level needed in the
analysis. Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered using data
cube when possible. Data cubes store multidimensional aggregated information.
The following figure shows a data cube for multidimensional analysis of sales data
with respect to annual sales per item type for each branch.

Each cells holds an aggregate data value, corresponding to the data point in
multidimensional space.Data cubes provide fast access to precomputed,
summarized data, thereby benefiting on-line analytical processing as well as data
mining.

The cube created at the lowest level of abstraction is referred to as the base
cuboid. A cube for the highest level of abstraction is the apex cuboid. The lowest
level of a data cube (base cuboid). Data cubes created for varying levels of
abstraction are sometimes referred to as cuboids, so that a data cube" may
instead refer to a lattice of cuboids. Each higher level of abstraction further reduces
the resulting data size.

The following database consists of sales per quarter for the years 1997-1999.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Suppose, the annalyser interested in the annual sales rather than sales per quarter,
the above data can be aggregated so that the resulting data summarizes the total
sales per year instead of per quarter. The resulting data in smaller in volume,
without loss of information necessary for the analysis task

Dimensionality Reduction

It reduces the data set size by removing irrelevant attributes. This is a method of
attribute subset selection are applied. A heuristic method of attribute of sub set
selection is explained here:

Attribute sub selection / Feature selection

Feature selection is a must for any data mining product. That is because,
when you build a data mining model, the dataset frequently contains more
information than is needed to build the model. For example, a dataset may contain
500 columns that describe characteristics of customers, but perhaps only 50 of
those columns are used to build a particular model. If you keep the unneeded
columns while building the model, more CPU and memory are required during the
training process, and more storage space is required for the completed model.

In which select a minimum set of features such that the probability

distribution of different classes given the values for those features is as close as
possible to the original distribution given the values of all features

Basic heuristic methods of attribute subset selection include the following

techniques, some of which are illustrated below:

1. Step-wise forward selection: The procedure starts with an empty set of

attributes. The best of the original attributes is determined and added to the set. At
each subsequent iteration or step, the best of the remaining original attributes is
added to the set.

2. Step-wise backward elimination: The procedure starts with the full set of
attributes. At each step, it removes the worst attribute remaining in the set.

3. Combination forward selection and backward elimination: The step-wise

forward selection and backward elimination methods can be combined, where at

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
each step one selects the best attribute and removes the worst from among the
remaining attributes.

4. Decision tree induction: Decision tree induction constructs a flow-chart-like

structure where each internal (non-leaf) node denotes a test on an attribute, each
branch corresponds to an outcome of the test, and each external (leaf) node
denotes a class prediction. At each node, the algorithm chooses the best" attribute
to partition the data into individual classes. When decision tree induction is used for
attribute subset selection, a tree is constructed from the given data. All attributes
that do not appear in the tree are assumed to be irrelevant. The set of attributes
appearing in the tree form the reduced subset of attributes.

Wrapper approach/Filter approach:

The mining algorithm itself is used to determine the attribute sub set, then it is
called wrapper approach or filter approach. Wrapper approach leads to greater
accuracy since it optimizes the evaluation measure of the algorithm while removing
attributes.

Data compression

In data compression, data encoding or transformations are applied so as to

obtain a reduced or compressed" representation of the original data. If the original
data can be reconstructed from the compressed data without any loss of
information, the data compression technique used is called lossless. If, instead, we
can reconstruct only an approximation of the original data, then the data
compression technique is called lossy. Effective methods of lossy data compression:

Wavelet transforms
Principal components analysis.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Wavelet compression is a form of data compression well suited for image
compression. The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is a linear signal processing
technique that, when applied to a data vector D, transforms it to a numerically
different vector, D0, of wavelet coefficients.

The general algorithm for a discrete wavelet transform is as follows.

1. The length, L, of the input data vector must be an integer power of two. This
condition can be met by padding the data vector with zeros, as necessary.

2. Each transform involves applying two functions:

data smoothing
calculating weighted difference

3. The two functions are applied to pairs of the input data, resulting in two sets of
data of length L/2.

4. The two functions are recursively applied to the sets of data obtained in the
previous loop, until the resulting data sets obtained are of desired length.

5. A selection of values from the data sets obtained in the above iterations are
designated the wavelet coefficients of the transformed data.

If wavelet coefficients are larger than some user-specified threshold then it can be
retained. The remaining coefficients are set to 0.

Haar2 and Daubechie4 are two popular wavelet transforms.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

-also called as Karhunen-Loeve (K-L) method
Procedure
Given N data vectors from k-dimensions, find c <= k orthogonal vectors
that can be best used to represent data
The original data set is reduced (projected) to one consisting of N data
vectors on c principal components (reduced dimensions)
Each data vector is a linear combination of the c principal component vectors
Works for ordered and unordered attributes
Used when the number of dimensions is large

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
The principal components (new set of axes) give important information about
variance. Using the strongest components one can reconstruct a good
approximation of the original signal.

Numerosity Reduction
Data volume can be reduced by choosing alternative smaller forms of data. This
tech. can be
Parametric method
Non parametric method
Parametric: Assume the data fits some model, then estimate model parameters,
and store only the parameters, instead of actual data.
Non parametric: In which histogram, clustering and sampling is used to store
reduced form of data.

Numerosity reduction techniques:

1 Regression and log linear models:

Can be used to approximate the given data
In linear regression, the data are modeled to fit a straight line using
Y = + X, where , are coefficients
Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above.
Log-linear model: The multi-way table of joint probabilities is approximated
by a product of lower-order tables.

Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd

2 Histogram

Divide data into buckets and store average (sum) for each bucket
A bucket represents an attribute-value/frequency pair
It can be constructed optimally in one dimension using dynamic programming
It divides up the range of possible values in a data set into classes or groups.
For each group, a rectangle (bucket) is constructed with a base length equal
to the range of values in that specific group, and an area proportional to the
number of observations falling into that group.
The buckets are displayed in a horizontal axis while height of a bucket
represents the average frequency of the values.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Example:
The following data are a list of prices of commonly sold items. The numbers have
been sorted.
1, 1, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 8, 8, 10, 10, 10, 10, 12, 14, 14, 14, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 18, 18,
18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, 21, 21, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25,
28, 28, 30, 30, 30.
Draw histogram plot for price where each bucket should have equi width of 10

The buckets can be determined based on the following partitioning rules, including
the following.

1. Equi-width: histogram with bars having the same width

2. Equi-depth: histogram with bars having the same height
3. V-Optimal: histogram with least variance (countb*valueb)
4. MaxDiff: bucket boundaries defined by user specified threshold

V-Optimal and MaxDiff histograms tend to be the most accurate and practical.
Histograms are highly effective at approximating both sparse and dense data, as
well as highly skewed, and uniform data.

Clustering techniques consider data tuples as objects. They partition the objects
into groups or clusters, so that objects within a cluster are similar" to one another
and dissimilar" to objects in other clusters. Similarity is commonly defined in terms
of how close" the objects are in space, based on a distance function.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Quality of clusters measured by their diameter (max distance between any

two objects in the cluster) or centroid distance (avg. distance of each cluster object
from its centroid)

Sampling

Sampling can be used as a data reduction technique since it allows a large

data set to be represented by a much smaller random sample (or subset) of the
data. Suppose that a large data set, D, contains N tuples. Let's have a look at some
possible samples for D.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

1. Simple random sample without replacement (SRSWOR) of size n: This is

created by drawing n of the N tuples from D (n < N), where the probably of drawing
any tuple in D is 1=N, i.e., all tuples are qually likely.
2. Simple random sample with replacement (SRSWR) of size n: This is
similar to SRSWOR, except that each time a tuple is drawn from D, it is recorded
and then replaced. That is, after a tuple is drawn, it is placed back in D so that it
may be drawn again.
3. Cluster sample: If the tuples in D are grouped into M mutually disjoint
clusters", then a SRS of m clusters can be obtained, where m < M. For example,
tuples in a database are usually retrieved a page at a time, so that each page can
be considered a cluster. A reduced data representation can be obtained by applying,
say, SRSWOR to the pages, resulting in a cluster sample of the tuples.
4. Stratified sample: If D is divided into mutually disjoint parts called strata", a
stratified sample of D is generated by obtaining a SRS at each stratum. This helps to
ensure a representative sample, especially when the data are skewed. For example,
a stratified sample may be obtained from customer data, where stratum is created

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
for each customer age group. In this way, the age group having the smallest
number of customers will be sure to be represented.

Advantages of sampling
1. An advantage of sampling for data reduction is that the cost of obtaining a
sample is proportional to the size of the sample, n, as opposed to N, the data
set size. Hence, sampling complexity is potentially sub-linear to the size of
the data.

2. When applied to data reduction, sampling is most commonly used to

estimate the answer to an aggregate query.

Discretization and concept hierarchies

1. Explain briefly various types of concept hierarchies with suitable

example. (11 Marks Nov 2013)
2. Define concept Hierarchy.(2 Marks April 2013)

Discretization:

Discretization techniques can be used to reduce the number of values for a given
continuous attribute, by dividing the range of the attribute into intervals. Interval
labels can then be used to replace actual data values.

Concept Hierarchy

A concept hierarchy for a given numeric attribute defines a discretization of

the attribute. Concept hierarchies can be used to reduce the data by collecting and
replacing low level concepts (such as numeric values for the attribute age) by
higher level concepts (such as young, middle-aged, or senior).

Discretization and Concept hierarchy for numerical data:

Three types of attributes:

Nominal values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
Ordinal values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic rank
Continuous real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
There are five methods for numeric concept hierarchy generation. These include:
1. binning,
2. histogram analysis,
3. clustering analysis,
4. entropy-based discretization, and
5. data segmentation by natural partitioning".

1 Bining: refer previous tpoic

2 Histogram: refer previous tpoic
3Clustering: refer previous tpoic
4 Entroby based discretization
An information-based measure called entropy" can be used to recursively partition
the values of a numeric attribute A, resulting in a hierarchical discretization.
Procedure:

5 Segmentation by Natural Partitioning

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Example:
Suppose that profits at different branches of a company for the year 1997 cover a
wide range, from -$351,976.00 to $4,700,896.50. A user wishes to have a concept
hierarchy for profit automatically generated

Suppose that the data within the 5%-tile and 95%-tile are between -$159,876 and
$1,838,761. The results of applying the 3-4-5 rule are shown in following figure

Step 1: Based on the above information, the minimum and maximum values are:
MIN = -$351, 976.00, and MAX = $4, 700, 896.50. The low (5%-tile) and high (95%-
tile) values to be considered for the top or first level of segmentation are: LOW = -
$159, 876, and HIGH = $1, 838,761.

Step 2: Given LOW and HIGH, the most significant digit is at the million dollar digit
position (i.e., msd =1,000,000). Rounding LOW down to the million dollar digit, we
get LOW = -$1; 000; 000; and rounding HIGH up to the million dollar digit, we get
HIGH = +$2; 000; 000.

Step 3: Since this interval ranges over 3 distinct values at the most significant digit,
i.e., (2; 000; 000-(-1, 000; 000))/1, 000, 000 = 3, the segment is partitioned into 3
equi-width sub segments according to the 3-4-5 rule: (-$1,000,000 - $0], ($0 -
$1,000,000], and ($1,000,000 - $2,000,000]. This represents the top tier of the
hierarchy.

Step 4: We now examine the MIN and MAX values to see how they fit" into the first
level partitions. Since the first interval, (-$1, 000, 000 - $0] covers the MIN value,
i.e., LOW < MIN, we can adjust the left boundary of this interval to make the
interval smaller. The most significant digit of MIN is the hundred thousand digit
position. Rounding MIN down to this position, we get MIN0 = -$400, 000.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Therefore, the first interval is redefined as (-$400,000 - 0]. Since the last interval,
($1,000,000-$2,000,000] does not cover the MAX value, i.e., MAX > HIGH, we need
to create a new interval to cover it. Rounding up MAX at its most significant digit
position, the new interval is ($2,000,000 - $5,000,000]. Hence, the top most level of
the hierarchy contains four partitions, (-$400,000 - $0], ($0 - $1,000,000],
($1,000,000 - $2,000,000], and ($2,000,000 - $5,000,000].

Step 5: Recursively, each interval can be further partitioned according to the 3-4-5
rule to form the next lower level of the hierarchy:
- The first interval (-$400,000 - $0] is partitioned into 4 sub-intervals: (-
$400,000 - -$300,000], (-$300,000 - -$200,000], (-$200,000 - -$100,000],
and (-$100,000 - $0].
- The second interval, ($0- $1,000,000], is partitioned into 5 sub-intervals: ($0 -
$200,000], ($200,000 - $400,000], ($400,000 - $600,000], ($600,000 -
$800,000], and ($800,000 -$1,000,000].
- The third interval, ($1,000,000 - $2,000,000], is partitioned into 5 sub-
intervals: ($1,000,000 - $1,200,000], ($1,200,000 - $1,400,000], ($1,400,000
- $1,600,000], ($1,600,000 - $1,800,000], and ($1,800,000 - $2,000,000].
- The last interval, ($2,000,000 - $5,000,000], is partitioned into 3 sub-
intervals: ($2,000,000 - $3,000,000], ($3,000,000 - $4,000,000], and
($4,000,000 - $5,000,000].

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

CONCEPT HIERARCHY GENERATION

A concept hierarchy defines a sequence of mappings from set of low-level

concepts to higher-level, more general concepts.
It organizes the values of attributes or dimension into gradual levels of
abstraction. They are useful in mining at multiple levels of abstraction

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Commercial tools available to find data discrepancy detection:

Data scrubbing tools use simple domain knowledge to detect errors and make
corrections in the data

Data auditing tools find discrepancies by analyzing the data to discover rules and
relationships and detecting data that violate such conditions

Data migration tools allow simple transformation to be specified such as replace

the string gender by sex

ETL(Extraction/Transformation/Loading tools: allow users to specify transforms

through a graphical user interface.

Integration of a data mining system with a database or data warehouse

system

Describe the differences between the following approaches for the integration of a
data mining system with a database or data warehouse system: no coupling, loose
coupling, semitight coupling, and tight coupling. State which approach you think is
the most popular, and why.

The differences between the following architectures for the integration of a data
mining system with a database or data warehouse system are as follows.

Integration of a Data Mining System with a Database or Data Warehouse

System

No coupling:

The data mining system uses sources such as flat files to obtain the initial data set
to be mined since no database system or data warehouse system functions are
implemented as part of the process. Thus, this architecture represents a poor design
choice.

Loose coupling:

The data mining system is not integrated with the database or data warehouse
system beyond their use as the source of the initial data set to be mined, and
possible use in storage of the results. Thus, this architecture can take advantage of
the flexibility, efficiency and features such as indexing that the database and data
warehousing systems may provide. However, it is difficult for loose coupling to
achieve high scalability and good performance with large data sets as many such
systems are memory-based.

Semitight coupling:

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Some of the data mining primitives such as aggregation, sorting or pre computation
of statistical functions are efficiently implemented in the database or data
warehouse system, for use by the data mining system during mining-query
processing. Also, some frequently used inter mediate mining results can be pre
computed and stored in the database or data warehouse system, thereby
enhancing the performance of the data mining system.

Tight coupling:

The database or data warehouse system is fully integrated as part of the data
mining system and thereby provides optimized data mining query processing. Thus,
the data mining sub system is treated as one functional component of an
information system. This is a highly desirable architecture as it facilitates efficient
implementations of data mining functions, high system performance, and an
integrated information processing environment

From the descriptions of the architectures provided above, it can be seen that tight
coupling is the best alternative without respect to technical or implementation
issues. However, as much of the technical infrastructure needed in a tightly coupled
system is still evolving, implementation of such a system is non-trivial. Therefore,
the most popular architecture is currently semi tight coupling as it provides a
compromise between loose and tight coupling.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL MEASURES

1.Discuss the concept of descriptive statistical measures. (11 Marks May

2014) 2.Explain the various descriptive statistical measures. (5
Marks Nov 2015)

Categorize the measures

A measure is distributive, if we can partition the dataset into smaller subsets,

compute the measure on the individual subsets, and then combine the partial
results in order to arrive at the measures value on the entire (original)
dataset
A measure is algebraic if it can be computed by applying an algebraic
function to one or more distributive measures
A measure is holistic if it must be computed on the entire dataset as a whole

Measure the Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a

set of data by identifying the central position within that set of data. As such,
measures of central tendency are sometimes called measures of central location.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
In other words, in many real-life situations, it is helpful to describe data by a
single number that is most representative of the entire collection of numbers. Such
a number is called a measure of central tendency. The most commonly used
measures are as follows. Mean, Median, and Mode

Mean: mean, or average, of numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by n. That
is:

Example 1

The marks of seven students in a mathematics test with a maximum possible mark
of 20 are given below:
15 13 18 16 14 17 12

Find the mean of this set of data values.

Solution:

So, the mean mark is 15.

Midrange

The midrange of a data set is the average of the minimum and maximum values.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Median: median of numbers is the middle number when the numbers are written in
order. If is even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.

Example 2

The marks of nine students in a geography test that had a maximum possible mark
of 50 are given below:
47 35 37 32 38 39 36 34 35

Find the median of this set of data values.

Solution:

Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:

32 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 47

The fifth data value, 36, is the middle value in this arrangement.

Note:

In general:

If the number of values in the data set is even, then the median is the average of
the two middle values.

Example 3

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Find the median of the following data set:
12 18 16 21 10 13 17 19

Solution:

Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
10 12 13 16 17 18 19 21

The number of values in the data set is 8, which is even. So, the median is the
average of the two middle values.

Trimmed mean

A trimming mean eliminates the extreme observations by removing

observations from each end of the ordered sample. It is calculated by discarding a
certain percentage of the lowest and the highest scores and then computing the
mean of the remaining scores.

Mode of numbers is the number that occurs most frequently. If two numbers
tie for most frequent occurrence, the collection has two modes and is called
bimodal.

The mode has applications in printing. For example, it is important to print

more of the most popular books; because printing different books in equal numbers
would cause a shortage of some books and an oversupply of others.

Likewise, the mode has applications in manufacturing. For example, it is

important to manufacture more of the most popular shoes; because manufacturing
different shoes in equal numbers would cause a shortage of some shoes and an
oversupply of others.
Example 4

Find the mode of the following data set:

48 44 48 45 42 49 48

Solution:

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
The mode is 48 since it occurs most often.

It is possible for a set of data values to have more than one mode.
If there are two data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of
data values is bimodal.

If there is three data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of
data values is trimodal

If two or more data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of
data values is multimodal

If there is no data value or data values that occur most frequently, we say
that the set of data values has no mode.

The mean, median and mode of a data set are collectively known as measures of
central tendency as these three measures focus on where the data is centered or
clustered. To analyze data using the mean, median and mode, we need to use the
most appropriate measure of central tendency. The following points should be
remembered:

The mean is useful for predicting future results when there are no extreme
values in the data set. However, the impact of extreme values on the mean
may be important and should be considered. E.g. The impact of a stock
market crash on average investment returns.
The median may be more useful than the mean when there are extreme
values in the data set as it is not affected by the extreme values.

The mode is useful when the most common item, characteristic or value of a
data set is required.

Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion measure how spread out a set of data is. The two
most commonly used measures of dispersion are the variance and the standard
deviation. Rather than showing how data are similar, they show how data differs
from its variation, spread, or dispersion.

Other measures of dispersion that may be encountered include the Quartiles,

Interquartile range (IQR), Five number summary, range and box plots

Variance and Standard Deviation

Very different sets of numbers can have the same mean. You will now study
two measures of dispersion, which give you an idea of how much the numbers in a
set differ from the mean of the set. These two measures are called the variance of
the set and the standard deviation of the set

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Percentile

Percentiles are values that divide a sample of data into one hundred groups
containing (as far as possible) equal numbers of observations.

The pth percentile of a distribution is the value such that p percent of the
observations fall at or below it.

The most commonly used percentiles other than the median are the 25th percentile
and the 75th percentile.

The 25th percentile demarcates the first quartile, the median or 50th percentile
demarcates the second quartile, the 75th percentile demarcates the third quartile,
and the 100th percentile demarcates the fourth quartile.

Quartiles

Quartiles are numbers that divide an ordered data set into four portions, each
containing approximately one-fourth of the data. Twenty-five percent of the data
values come before the first quartile (Q1). The median is the second quartile (Q2);
50% of the data values come before the median. Seventy-five percent of the data
values come before the third quartile (Q3).

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Q1=25th percentile=(n*25/100), where n is total number of data in the given data
set

Q2=median=50th percentile=(n*50/100)

Q3=75th percentile=(n*75/100)

Inter quartile range (IQR)

The inter quartile range is the length of the interval between the lower
quartile (Q1) and the upper quartile (Q3). This interval indicates the central, or
middle, 50% of a data set.

IQR=Q3-Q1

Range

The range of a set of data is the difference between its largest (maximum)
and smallest (minimum) values. In the statistical world, the range is reported as a
single number, the difference between maximum and minimum. Sometimes, the
range is often reported as from (the minimum) to (the maximum), i.e., two
numbers.

Example1:

Given data set: 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 8

The range of data set is 38. The range gives only minimal information about the
spread of the data, by defining the two extremes. It says nothing about how the
data are distributed between those two endpoints.

Example2:

In this example we demonstrate how to find the minimum value, maximum value,
and range of the following data: 29, 31, 24, 29, 30, 25

1. Arrange the data from smallest to largest.

24, 25, 29, 29, 30, 31

2. Identify the minimum and maximum values:

Minimum = 24, Maximum = 31

3. Calculate the range:

Range = Maximum-Minimum = 3124 = 7.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Thus the range is 7.

Five-Number Summary

The Five-Number Summary of a data set is a five-item list comprising the

minimum value, first quartile, median, third quartile, and maximum value of the set.

{MIN, Q1, MEDIAN (Q2), Q3, MAX}

Box plots

A box plot is a graph used to represent the range, median, quartiles and inter
quartile range of a set of data values.

Constructing a Box plot: To construct a box plot:

(i) Draw a box to represent the middle 50% of the observations of the data set.
(ii) Show the median by drawing a vertical line within the box.
(iii) Draw the lines (called whiskers) from the lower and upper ends of the box to
the minimum and maximum values of the data set respectively, as shown in the
following diagram.

X is the set of data values.

Min X is the minimum value in the data set.

Max X is the maximum value in the data set.

Example: Draw a boxplot for the following data set of scores:

76 79 76 74 75 71 85 82 82 79 81

Step 1: Arrange the score values in ascending order of magnitude:

71 74 75 76 76 79 79 81 82 82 85

There are 11 values in the data set.

Step 2: Q1=25th percentile value in the given data set

Q1=11*(25/100) th value

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
=2.75 =>3rd value

=75

Step 3: Q2=median=50th percentile value

=11 * (50/100) th value

=5.5th value => 6th value

=79

Step 4: Q3=75th percentile value

=11*(75/100)th value

=8.25th value=>9th value

= 82

Step 5: Min X= 71

Step 6: Max X=85

Step 7: Range= 85-71 = 14

Step 5: IQR=height of the box=Q3-Q1=9-3=6th value=79

Since the medians represent the middle points, they split the data into four equal
parts. In other words:

one quarter of the data numbers are less than 75

one quarter of the data numbers are between 75 and 79

one quarter of the data numbers are between 79 and 82

one quarter of the data numbers are greater than 82

Outliers

Outlier data is a data that falls outside the range. Outliers will be any points below
Q1 1.5IQR or above Q3 + 1.5IQR.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
Example:

Find the outliers, if any, for the following data set:

10.2, 14.1, 14.4, 14.4, 14.4, 14.5, 14.5, 14.6, 14.7, 14.7, 14.7, 14.9, 15.1, 15.9,
16.4

To find out if there are any outliers, I first have to find the IQR. There are fifteen data
points, so the median will be at position (15/2) = 7.5=8 th value=14.6. That is, Q2 =
14.6.

Q1 is the fourth value in the list and Q3 is the twelfth: Q1 = 14.4 and Q3 = 14.9.

Then IQR = 14.9 14.4 = 0.5.

Outliers will be any points below:

Q1 1.5IQR = 14.4 0.75 = 13.65 or above Q3 + 1.5IQR = 14.9 + 0.75 = 15.65.

Then the outliers are at 10.2, 15.9, and 16.4.

The values for Q1 1.5IQR and Q3 + 1.5IQR are the "fences" that mark off the
"reasonable" values from the outlier values. Outliers lie outside the fences.

Graphic Displays of Basic Descriptive Data Summaries

1 Histogram

A histogram is a way of summarizing data that are measured on an interval scale

(either discrete or continuous). It is often used in exploratory data analysis to
illustrate the major features of the distribution of the data in a convenient form. It
divides up the range of possible values in a data set into classes or groups. For each
group, a rectangle is constructed with a base length equal to the range of values in
that specific group, and an area proportional to the number of observations falling
into that group. This means that the rectangles might be drawn of non-uniform
height.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
The histogram is only appropriate for variables whose values are numerical and
measured on an interval scale. It is generally used when dealing with large data
sets (>100 observations)

A histogram can also help detect any unusual observations (outliers), or any gaps in
the data set.

2 Scatter Plot

A scatter plot is a useful summary of a set of bivariate data (two variables), usually
drawn before working out a linear correlation coefficient or fitting a regression line.
It gives a good visual picture of the relationship between the two variables, and aids
the interpretation of the correlation coefficient or regression model.

Each unit contributes one point to the scatter plot, on which points are plotted but
not joined. The resulting pattern indicates the type and strength of the relationship
between the two variables.

Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
A scatter plot will also show up a non-linear relationship between the two variables
and whether or not there exist any outliers in the data.

3 Loess curve

It is another important exploratory graphic aid that adds a smooth curve to a scatter
plot in order to provide better perception of the pattern of dependence. The word
loess is short for local regression.

4 Box plot

The picture produced consists of the most extreme values in the data set (maximum
and minimum values), the lower and upper quartiles, and the median.

5 Quantile plot

Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both the overall behavior
and unusual occurrences)
Plots quantile information

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
For a data xi data sorted in increasing order, fi indicates that
approximately 100 fi% of the data are below or equal to the value xi

The f quantile is the data value below which approximately a decimal fraction f of
the data is found. That data value is denoted q(f). Each data point can be assigned
an f-value. Let a time series x of length n be sorted from smallest to largest values,
such that the sorted values have rank. The f-value for each observation is computed

as . 1,2,..., n . The f-value for each observation is computed as,

6 Quantile-Quantile plots (Q-Q plot)

Quantile-quantile plots allow us to compare the quantiles of two sets of numbers.

This kind of comparison is much more detailed than a simple comparison of means
or medians.

A normal distribution is often a reasonable model for the data. Without inspecting
the data, however, it is risky to assume a normal distribution. There are a number of
graphs that can be used to check the deviations of the data from the normal
distribution. The most useful tool for assessing normality is a quantile quantile or
QQ plot. This is a scatterplot with the quantiles of the scores on the horizontal axis
and the expected normal scores on the vertical axis.

In other words, it is a graph that shows the quantiles of one univariate distribution
against the corresponding quantiles of another. It is a powerful visualization tool in
that it allows the user to view whether there is a shift in going from one distribution
to another.

The steps in constructing a QQ plot are as follows:

First, we sort the data from smallest to largest. A plot of these scores against the
expected normal scores should reveal a straight line.

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1
The expected normal scores are calculated by taking the z-scores of (I - )/n where
I is the rank in increasing order.

Curvature of the points indicates departures of normality. This plot is also useful for
detecting outliers. The outliers appear as points that are far away from the overall
pattern op points

How is a quantile-quantile plot different from a quantile plot?

A quantile plot is a graphical method used to show the approximate

percentage of values below or equal to the independent variable in a univariate
distribution. Thus, it displays quantile information for all the data, where the values
measured for the independent variable are plotted against their corresponding
quantile.

A quantile-quantile plot however, graphs the quantiles of one univariate

distribution against the corresponding quantiles of another univariate distribution.
Both axes display the range of values measured for their corresponding distribution,
and points are plotted that correspond to the quantile values of the two
distributions. A line (y = x) can be added to the graph along with points
representing where the first, second and third quantiles lie, in order to increase the
graphs informational value. Points that lie above such a line indicate a
correspondingly higher value for the distribution plotted on the y-axis, than for the
distribution plotted on the x-axis at the same quantile. The opposite effect is true
for points lying below this line.

Example 1

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology
 CS-E68 DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING

UNIT-1

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi college of Engineering

and Technology