Chapter 2:

Modulation

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Communication System Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Introduction
What is modulation?

Modulation is defined as the process of modifying a carrier

wave (radio wave) systematically by the modulating signal
(audio)

This process makes the signal suitable for the transmission and
compatible with the channel. The resultant signal is called the
modulated signal

In the other words, it is the process of changing/varying one of

the parameters of the carrier wave by the modulating signal

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Introduction
Modulation is operation performed at the transmitter to achieve
efficient and reliable information transmission

For analogue modulation, it is frequency translation method

caused by changing the appropriate quantity in a carrier signal

It involves two waveforms:

A modulating signal/baseband signal represents the
message
A carrier signal depends on type of modulation

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Introduction

Analogue modulations - frequency translation

methods caused by changing the appropriate
quantity in a carrier signal.

Baseband Modulated
signal MODULATION signal

Carrier

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Introduction

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Introduction

Once this information is received, the low frequency information

must be removed from the high frequency carrier.

This process is known as Demodulation.

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Types of Modulation

Three main type of modulations:

Analog Modulation

Amplitude modulation
Example: Double sideband with carrier (DSB-WC), Double
sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), Single sideband
suppressed carrier (SSB-SC), Vestigial sideband (VSB)

Angle modulation (frequency modulation & phase modulation)

Example: Narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM), Wideband
frequency modulation (WBFM), Narrowband phase modulation
(NBPM), Wideband phase modulation (NBPM)

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Types of Modulation
Pulse Modulation

Carrier is a train of pulses

Example: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse width
modulation (PWM) , Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Digital Modulation

Modulating signal is analog

Example: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulation
(DM), Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM), Differential Pulse
Code Modulation (DPCM), Adaptive Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (ADPCM) etc.

Modulating signal is digital (binary modulation)

Example: Amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency Shift Keying
(FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK) etc.

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Summary of Modulation Techniques

Volt Hertz Radians

Analogue
Modulation
AM FM PM

v(t) = V sin (2ft )

ASK FSK PSK
Digital
Modulation

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Types of Modulation

Changing of the amplitude produces

Amplitude Modulation signal

Changing of the frequency produces

Frequency Modulation signal

Changing of the phase produces

Phase Modulation signal

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Modulation 1

Analogue Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
(13-60)

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Communication System Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Amplitude Modulation

Various forms of Amplitude Modulation

Conventional Amplitude Modulation (Alternatively
known as Full AM or Double Sideband Large carrier
modulation (DSBLC) /Double Sideband Full Carrier
(DSBFC)
Double Sideband Suppressed carrier (DSBSC)
modulation
Single Sideband (SSB) modulation
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)
Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the
amplitude of the radio frequency (RF) carrier wave by the
amplitude variations of modulating signal

The carrier amplitude varied linearly by the modulating

signal which usually consist of a range of a audio
frequencies. The frequency of the carrier is not affected

Application of AM - Radio broadcasting, TV pictures

(video), facsimile transmission
Frequency range for AM - 535 kHz 1600 kHz
Bandwidth - 10 kHz

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier varies

proportional to the instantaneous magnitude of modulating signal

Assuming

Modulating signal : vm(t) = Vm cos wmt

carrier signal : vc(t) = Vc cos wct

modulating Modulated
AMPLITUDE
Signal Signal
MODULATION
vm(t)

vAM (t ) Vc Vm cos(mt )cos(ct )

Carrier wave
Vc cos wct

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)
Carrier signal
vc (t ) Vc cos(c t ) where c 2f c
where c 2f c Modulating signal

vm (t ) Vm cos mt

vam

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

V envelope vm
1.5

V envelope =
Vmin
1 Vmax
Vc + vm 0.5
Vc max
0
vc instantaneous
-0.5

Vmin Vmax
-1

-1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

vam = amplitude - V envelope V modulated signal vam

frequency - carrier
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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

Carrier signal

vc (t ) Vc cos(c t ) where c 2f c
Modulating signal

vm (t ) Vm cos mt

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

The amplitude-modulated wave can then be expressed as

v AM (t ) Vc cos(c t ) vm (t ) cos(c t )
v AM (t ) Vc vm (t )cos(c t )
v AM (t ) Vc Vm cos(mt )cos(ct )
v AM (t ) Vc cos(c t )1 cos m t
Vm
Vc

v AM (t ) Vc cos(ct )1 ma cos m t

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

where notation m is termed the modulation index. It is

simply a measurement for the degree of modulation and
bears the relationship of Vm to Vc

Vm
ma
Vc
Therefore the full AM signal may be written as

vAM (t ) Vc cos(ct )1 ma cos(m t

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

Using
cos A cos B 1 / 2[cos( A B) cos( A B)]

maVc maVc
v Am (t ) Vc (cos ct ) cos(c m )t cos(c m )t
2 2

Carrier Upper sideband Lower sideband

component component component

So, with the modulating process, the original modulating

signal is transferred to a different frequency spectrum with a
higher value frequency

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)
The frequency spectrum of AM waveform contains 3 parts:
A component at the carrier frequency fc
An upper sideband (USB), whose highest frequency
component is at fc+fm
A lower sideband (LSB), whose highest frequency
component is at fc-fm
The bandwidth of the modulated waveform is twice the
information signal bandwidth.

# sideband is a component above and below centre frequency

# Every sideband contains all the original message, but not the
carrier

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

DSBFC Frequency Spectrum

With single frequency fm
B = Maximum freq. - minimum freq.
= (fc+fm)-(fc-fm)
= fc+fm-fc+fm
Vc = 2fm
Vc Vc
ma ma
2 2

freq
fc-fm fC fc+fm
2fm
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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)
If fm consists of a range frequencies f1 to f2, the
component of the sidebands become:
Upper sideband (USB) range is from (fc+f1) to (fc+f2)
Lower sideband (LSB) range is from (fc-f2) to (fc-f1)

Modulated
Amplitude,V Amplitude,V
signal
Baseband signal lower sideband upper sideband

freq freq
f1 f2 fc-f2 fc-f1 fc+f1 fc+f2

AM spectrum when the modulating signal is a baseband signal from frequency f1 to f2

Bandwidth for this case,

B = (fc+f2) - (fc-f2)
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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBFC (Full AM)

For example, if voice signal with the band of frequency of

0 4 kHz is transmitted using a carrier of 100 kHz, the
modulated signal consists of
Carrier signal with frequency of 100 kHz
upper side band with frequency of range of 100 104 kHz

lower side band with frequency of range 96 100 kHz

The bandwidth is 104 96 = 8 kHz

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Modulation Index m (Coefficient of Modulation)

m is merely defined as a parameter, which determines the

amount of modulation.

What is the degree of modulation required to establish a

desirable AM communication link?

Answer is to maintain m<1.0 (m<100%).

This is important for successful retrieval of the original

transmitted information at the receiver end.

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Modulation Index m

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Modulation Index m

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Modulation Index m

m must have a value between 0 and 1 to avoid over-modulation

This modulation is known as double sideband with carrier

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Modulation Index m

If the amplitude of the modulating signal is higher than the

carrier amplitude, which in turn implies the modulation index
m 1.0(100%). This will cause severe distortion to the
modulated signal.

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Modulation Index m

The ideal condition for amplitude modulation (AM) is when

m=1, which also means Vm=Vc.

This will give rise to the generation of the maximum

message signal output at the receiver without distortion.

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Modulation Index m

If the modulating signal is pure, single-frequency sine

wave and the modulation process is symmetrical (i.e., the
positive and negative excursion of the envelope's
amplitude are equal), then percent modulation as follows:
Vm = (Vmax Vmin) and Vc = (Vmax + Vmin)

1 / 2(V max V min) (V max V min)

x100
Therefore, m = 1 / 2(V max V min) = (V max V min) x100

1 / 2(V max V min) 1

(V max V min)
2 4

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Modulation Index m

The peak change in the amplitude of the output wave

(Vm) is the sum of the voltage from the upper and lower
side frequencies. Therefore

Since Vm = Vusf + Vlsf and Vusf = Vlsf , then

Vusf = Vlsf = Vm/2 =

Vusf = peak amplitude of the upper side

frequency (volts)

Vlsf = peak amplitude of the lower side

frequency (volts)

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Modulation Index m

1.5

Vmin
1 Vmax
Vm
0.5

Vc
0

-0.5

Vmin Vmax
-1

-1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

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Modulation Index m

The modulation index can be determined by measuring the

actual values of the modulation voltage and the carrier voltage
and computing the ratio.

V V V V max Vc Vm
ma m max min
V V V V min Vc Vm
c max min

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Modulation Index m

Trapezoid waveform can be obtained from by connecting

the modulating signal to x-axis of an oscilloscope and
modulated signal to y-axis of the oscilloscope

a b

m=0 0< m < 1 m=1

m>1

Thus, m can be calculated as

ma a b
ab

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AM Power Distribution

maVc maVc
v Am (t ) Vc (cos ct ) cos(c m )t cos(c m )t
2 2

For a single frequency signal, average power for each

component is (assume transmission impedance is R):

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AM Power Distribution
Carrier power : Vc2
Pc
2R
2 2
Sideband power: PUSB ma Vc2 ma Pc
PLSB
8R 4
2
ma Pc
PSB PUSB PLSB
2
The total transmitted power is Ptotal Pc PUSB pLSB
the sum of the carrier power Pc PSB
and the power in the ma 2
Pc 1
sidebands. 2

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AM Power Distribution

The efficiency of the AM in term of power consumption is

2
P m
SB 2 a
PT ma 2

Thus, at optimum operation (m = 100%), only 33% of

power is used to carry information

From previous equation, total current flow in AM is

2
m P
PSB PUSB PLSB a c
2

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Generation and Detection of Full AM

Both generation and detection require multiplication to

be performed.

The multiplication is achieved by using a network with a

nonlinear characteristic.

Nonlinear networks are not true multipliers because other

components are produced and need to be filtered out.

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Square-Law Modulator
Consists of a summer (summing the carrier and
modulating signal), nonlinearity (square-law) block and a
band pass filter (BPF) of bandwidth (2B) centered at fc to
extract the desired modulation products.

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Square-Law Modulator
Square law of nonlinearity:
v2(t) = a1v1(t) + a2v12(t)

where, a1 and a2 are constants and v1 is the input

voltage signal consist of the carrier plus the modulation
signal
v1(t) = Sc(t) + Sm(t) = Vc cos(wct) + Sm(t)
v2(t) = a1Vc(1 + 2a2/a1 Sm(t)) cos(wct) + a1Sm(t) +
a2Sm2(t) + a2Ac2cos2wct

By letting a1 = 1 , a2 = Ac
vo = Ac (1 + mcos(wmt)) cos(wct) ---------Full AM signal

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Square-Law Detector
Although above is described as a modulator, it can also
be used as a demodulator provided that the BPF is
replaced by a low pass filter (LPF) with cutoff
frequency at fm (i.e.; bandwidth of B) and a local
carrier signal oscillator.

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Envelope Detector
However, envelope detector is yet another full AM
detector commonly employed to replace the square-law
detector. Since it is more simple and highly effective
device produces a waveform at its output that is
proportional to the real envelope of its input;
i.e. the output of the detector simply follows the
envelope of the input signal.

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Envelope Detector - Operation
Make an initial assumption that the input (AM signal) is of fixed
amplitude and ignore the present of the resistor R. Following
this, the capacitor C charges to the peak positive voltage of the
carrier. It capacitor) then holds this peak voltage, results the
diode stop conducting. Suppose now that the input-carrier
amplitude is made to increase. Again, the diode resumes
conduction, and the capacitor charges to a new higher carrier
peak. To ensure that the capacitor voltage vc to follow the
carrier peaks when the carrier amplitude is decreasing, it is
required to include the resistor R, so the capacitor C may
discharge. In this case the capacitor voltage vc has the form
shown in (AM waveform); i.e. the positive portion of the
modulated signal envelope approximates the modulating
information signal. An additional LPF might be needed to
effectively smoothen out the saw tooth distortion of the
envelope waveform shown in figure (AM waveform) after the
envelope detector.

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m for Complex Signal

As most of the signals are complex and can be

represented by combination of various sine waves, m can be
determined by
ma meff m12 m22 m32 ......

Thus, total power for this complex signal is

2
meff
PT Pc [1 ]
2

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Amplitude Modulation ~
Double Sideband Suppress Carrier (DSBSC)

The previous modulated signal (DSBFC) has two

drawbacks; it waste power and bandwidth

Power sent as the carrier contains no information and each

sideband carries the same information independently

The double sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) is

introduced to eliminate carrier hence improve power
efficiency

It is a technique where it is transmitting both the sidebands

without the carrier (the carrier is being suppressed)

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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBSC

The equation, then is simplified to

vDSBSC (t ) VcVm cos c t cos mt

VcVm
cos(c m )t cos(c m )t
2

LSB USB
freq freq
fc-fm fc+fm
Frequency spectrum of a DSBSC system

Ptotal PUSB p LSB

Total power in DSBSC

Although, the power is improved, the bandwidth remain unchanged,

that is BW = 2B = 2 fmax
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Amplitude Modulation ~ DSBSC

The suppressed carrier is further improved by sending only

one sideband

Thisnot only uses less power but also only half of the
bandwidth and it is called single sideband suppressed carrier
(SSBSC)

There are two possible of SSBSC

the lower sideband VLSB = Vm cos (wc-wm)t
the upper sideband VUSB = Vm cos (wc+wm)t

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Amplitude Modulation ~ Single Sideband (SSB)

As both DSB and standard AM waste a lot of power and

occupy large bandwidth, SSB is adopted
SSB is a process of transmitting one of the sidebands of the
standard AM by suppressing the carrier and one of the
sidebands (only transmits upper or lower sideband of AM)
Reduces bandwidth by factor of 2

LSB USB
LSB USB

fc fc Frequency spectrum of a SSB system

Total power in SSB Ptotal PUSB pLSB
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Amplitude Modulation ~ Single Sideband (SSB)

SSB Applications:

SSB is used in the systems which require minimum

bandwidth such as telephone multiplex system and it is
not used in broadcasting

Point to point communications at frequency below 30

MHz mobile communications, military, navigation radio
etc where power saving is needed

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Amplitude Modulation ~ Vestigial Sideband

VSB is a technique AM transmission where the carrier, one

sideband and a part of the other sideband are transmitted

VSB application:

VSB is mainly used in TV broadcasting for their video

transmissions. TV signal consists of:

Audio signal is transmitted by FM

Video signal is transmitted by VSB

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Amplitude Modulation ~ Vestigial Sideband

A video signal consists of range of frequencies and maximum

frequency is as high as 4.5Mhz.

If it is transmitted using the conventional AM system, the

required bandwidth is 9.0 Mhz (B=2fm). But according to the
standardization, TV signal is limited to 6MHz only.

So, to reduce to 6Mhz bandwidth, a part of the LSB is not

transmitted. In this case SSB transmission is not applied as it
is very difficult to suppress a sideband accurately at high
frequency.

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Amplitude Modulation ~ Vestigial Sideband

Carrier
Carrier
for video
for audio

Audio
Lower
Upper sideband Signal
Side
(FM)
band

fc-1.25 fc 4.5 MHz fc+4.5

Frequency spectrum of a Vestigial Sideband

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Conclusion

Only sidebands contain the information

Lower and upper sideband are identical. Only one sideband

is enough to recover the original signal

Carrier component does not contain any information but

constitute 2/3 of the total power, at full modulation (ma=1)

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Advantages and Disadvantages of AM

Advantages:
simple with proven reliability

low cost

Disadvantages:
wastage of power as most of the transmitted power are in
the carrier component which does not contain information.
When ma=1, 2/3 of the power is wasted
AM requires a bandwidth which is double to audio
frequency
Noisy

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AM Communication Chart

Continuous Wave

Amplitude Angle
Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Phase
DSBFC DSBSC Vestigial SSB Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Examples
2.1 For an AM modulator with carrier frequency of 150 kHz and a modulating signal frequency of
10 kHz, determine the:
(i) Freq for the upper and lower sideband
(ii) bandwidth
Sketch the output frequency spectrum

Solution:
i) The lower and upper side band frequency

fLSB = fc fm = 150 kHz 10 kHz = 140 kHz fUSB = fc + fm = 150 kHz + 10 kHz =
160 kHz

i) Bandwidth
B = 2fm = 2 (10) kHz = 20 kHz
The output frequency spectrum is as shown:

Vc
(maVc)/2 (maVc)/2

f (kHz)
140 B = 20 kHz 150 160 59
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 Examples
2.2 For an AM wave with a peak unmodulated carrier voltage Vc = 20 V, a load resistance RL =
20 ohm and a modulation index ma = 0.2, determine :
(i) Power contained in the carrier and the upper and lower sidebands
(ii) Total sideband power
(iii) Total power of the modulated power
Solution:
(i) The carrier power is
2 2 2 2
V 20 2 m V m P ( 0.2 ) 2 (10 )
c a c a c
Pc 10W PLSB PUSB 0.1w
2R 2 ( 20 ) 8R 4 4

(i) The total sideband

2
m p ( 0.2 ) 2 (10 ) PSB PUSB PLSB 0.1 0.1 0.2 w
a c
PSB 0.2 w OR
2 2

(i) The total power in the modulated wave:

2
m ( 0.2 ) 2 PT Pc PSB 10 0.2 10.2 w
a
PT P [1 ] 10[1 ] 10.2W OR
c 2 2

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Modulation 2

Analogue Modulation
Angle Modulation
(62-112)

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Communication System Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Types of Modulation Process

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Types of Modulation Process

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Analog
Modulation

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Types of angle modulation

1. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

2. PHASE MODULATION (PM).

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FM Communication Chart

Continuous Wave

Amplitude Angle
Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
DSBFC DSBSC Vestigial SSB Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Angle Modulation

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FREQUENCY-MODULATION SYSTEM

Angle Modulation

In angle modulation, the amplitude of the modulated carrier

is held constant and either the phase or the time derivative
of the phase of the carrier is varied linearly with the
message signal vm(t).

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 Frequency Modulation
Introduction
As in Chapter 1, the need for modulation arises because
the range of frequencies contained in a baseband signal
is not, in general, the same as the range of frequencies
which can be transmitted by the communications
channel.

AM amplitude modulation
medium wave (300 kHz to 3 MHz), short wave

(330 MHz)
FM frequency modulation
VHF (30 300 MHz )

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 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Introduction
FM is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier
wave in proportion to a modulating signal.
The amplitude of the carrier is constant while its
frequency and rate of changes varied by the modulating
signal

FM modulator FM signal

Frequency modulated signal

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 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Introduction
The FM modulator receives two signals, the
information signal from an external source and the
carrier signal from a built in oscillator.

The modulator circuit combines the two signals

producing a FM signal which is passed on to the
transmission medium.

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 Frequency Modulation Waveform
Point A, C and E are where the information
signal is at 0V.
Point B is where the information signal is
at the max. positive amplitude, point D is
where the information signal is at the max.
negative amplitude.
During the time from point A to B, the FM
signal increases in freq.
to its max. value at point B.
From point B to C, the FM signal freq.
decrease until reaching the freq. of the
carrier signal which called
the center frequency.

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Frequency Modulation Waveform
At point D is where the info signal has the max.
negative amplitude.
From point D to E, the FM signal increases until
reaching the centre frequency.

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Frequency Modulation (FM)
The important features about FM waveforms are:

i. The frequency varies

ii. The rate of change of carrier frequency changes is the

same as the frequency of the information signal

iii. The amount of carrier frequency changes is proportional to

the amplitude of the information signal

iv. The amplitude is constant

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FM Analysis

Assume : Carrier signal: vc (t ) Vc cos(ct )

Information signal: vm (t ) Vm cos mt

In FM, frequency changes with the change of the

amplitude of the information signal

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FM Analysis

Thus, the instantaneous modulated frequency,

c kvm (t ) f fc k
Vm
cos m t
c kVm cos mt
or 2
f f c f cos m t
k is constant proportionality

kVm f = frequency deviation

f
2
f k f Vm k f = frequency deviation constant
(deviation sensitivity, Hz/V)

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 Analysis of FM

The wave equation of the frequency modulation is:

V cc o s
vF M ( t )
T h e a n g l e i so b t a i n eads :
w dt w c kVm cos w m t dt
kVm
w ct sin w m t
wm
Assu min g 0
kVm
V c c o s w c t
vF M ( t ) sin w m t
wm

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 Analysis of FM

vFM (t ) Vc cos(c t mf sin m t )

kVm kVm kVm

mf f
where m 2f m 2

f
FM modulation index m f fm
In the FM, the value of modulation index, mf can be any value
from zero to infinity 0 mf

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Carrier Frequency (fc)

As in AM, the carrier frequency in FM system must be

higher than the information signal frequency.

FM radio : Uses carrier frequencies

between 88 MHz and 108 MHz.
Television: Frequency range = 54 MHz 806 MHz
No. of channels = 67 channels
Bandwidth = 6 MHz

VHF: 54 MHz 216 MHz (channel 2 channel 13)

UHF: 470 MHz 806 MHz (channel 14 channel 69)
608 MHz 614 MHz ( Radio Astronomy )

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Frequency Deviation
Frequency deviation represents the maximum change of
the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the
carrier frequency.

A fundamental characteristic of an FM signal is that the

frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal, Vm and independent of the
modulating frequency, fm

kVm or f Vm
f
2

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Frequency Deviation

The highest frequency for FM wave is

f max f c f
The minimum frequency for FM wave is
f min f c f
The total change of the frequency from minimum frequency
to the maximum frequency is called frequency carrier
swing, fcs
f cs 2f

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FM Frequency Spectrum

As obtained, the FM signal is

vFM (t ) Vc cos(ct m f sin mt )

v FM ( t ) V (cos t[m (sin t )] sin t[m sin t ])
c c f m c f m

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FM Frequency Spectrum
By using mathematical expressions:

v FM ( t ) V {cos t[ J J cos 2 t J cos 4 t.......]

c c 0 2 m 4 m
sin t[ J sin t J sin 3 t.....]}
c 1 m 3 m
v FM ( t ) V {J cos t J [cos( ) t cos( ) t ]
c 0 c 1 c m c m
J [cos( 2 ) t cos( 2 ) t ]..... J ....}
2 c m c m 5
Where Jn is a Bessel Function from first type, nth order
J0 - will give the amplitude of the carrier
Jn will give the amplitude of the sidebands, with
frequency ( n )
c m

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FM frequency spectrum

From above equation, the FM waveform has a component at

the carrier frequency and an unlimited series of frequency,
above and below the carrier frequency as below figure.

An important characteristic of Bessel function:

or
J 2 1 V 2Jn2 Vc2( power)
n n
n c

J ( n ) (1) n J n Actual amplitude for the sideband = Jn x Vc

Relative amplitude for the sideband = Jn

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FM frequency spectrum

|Jn|

J0

J1 J1
J2 J2

J3 J3

fc-3fm fc-2fm fc-fm fc fc+fm fc+2fm fc+3fm

freq
An FM frequency spectrum

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Bessel Functions

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TABLE OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS

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Bessel Functions

The first column gives the sideband number,

while the first row gives the modulation index.

The remaining columns indicate the amplitudes

of the carrier and the various pairs of sidebands.

Sidebands with relative magnitude of less than

0.001 have been eliminated.

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Bessel Functions
Some of the carrier and sideband amplitudes have negative
signs. This means that the signal represented by that
amplitude is simply shifted in phase 180 (phase
inversion). As you can see, the spectrum of a FM signal
varies considerably in bandwidth depending upon the value
of the modulation index. The higher the modulation index,
the wider the bandwidth of the FM signal.

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Bessel Functions

With the increase in the modulation index, the carrier

amplitude decreases while the amplitude of the various
sidebands increases. With some values of modulation index,
the carrier can disappear completely.

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FM Bandwidth

Theoretically, a FM signal contains an infinite number of side

frequencies so that the bandwidth required to transmit such
signal is infinite.

However, since the values of Jn() become negligible for

sufficiently large n, the bandwidth of an angle-modulated
signal can be defined by considering only those terms that
contain significant power.

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FM Bandwidth

From Bessel table: B.W 2nf m(max) actual bandwidth

n = number of significant sideband

Carson's rule is given by the expression

BW 2(f f m) approximate bandwidth

Carsons rule is an approximation and gives

transmission bandwidth that are slightly narrower than
the bandwidths determined using the Bessel table.

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Examples
Calculate the bandwidth occupied by a FM signal with a
modulation index of 2 and a highest modulating frequency of
2.5 kHz.
B.W . 2 6 2.5
Solution: B.W 2nf m(max) 30kHz

Example:
Assuming a maximum frequency deviation of 5 kHz and a
maximum modulating frequency of 2.5 kHz, the bandwidth
would be

Solution: B.W . 2( 2.5kHz 5kHz)

2 7.5kHz
15kHz
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Power in FM
In FM, the amplitude of the modulated signal is the same as
the amplitude of the un-modulated carrier signal. Power of FM
wave dissipated in a load, R is:

V2 V2
P rms c PFM = Pc
FM R 2R

But the power in the carrier is distributed over the various

FM sidebands that results from the modulation. This power
is contained at the various frequency Spectrum
components, in amounts determined by the mf and the
corresponding Bessel Function

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Power in FM

The FM average power is:

where
n Pc = carrier power
2
P P [J 2 J n2 ] n = number of pairs of
T c 0
n 1
significant sidebands

The average power of the modulated carrier (PT) must

be equal to the average power of the un-modulated
carrier

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Narrow Band FM (NBFM)
1. Modulation index approximates to 1

2. The frequency modulation is between 5 kHz to 10khz

3. Bandwidth : 10 30kHz

4. The maximum modulating frequency : 3 kHz

5. NBFM is used for communication, in competition with

SSB, having its main applications in various form of
mobile communication (eg. Police, ambulances, etc)

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Wide Band FM (NBFM)

1. Modulating frequency range from : 30 kHz 15 kHz

2. The maximum frequency deviation frequency : 75 kHz

3. Modulation index is more than 1 (between 5 to 2500)

4. Bandwidth is approximately 15 times higher than the

NBFM system

5. WBFM is used for broadcasting with or without stereo

multiplex and for the sound accompanying TV
transmission

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Advantages of FM compared to AM

1. All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM

most of it in the transmitted carrier, which contains no
useful information

2. FM has the advantages over the AM, of providing greater

protection from noise for the lowest modulating
frequency

3. In FM, the transmitted amplitude is constant. This

characteristic has the advantages of significantly
improving immunity to noise and interference

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Disadvantages of FM compared to AM

1. Since the reception is limited to line of sight, the

area of reception for FM is much smaller than AM

2. Equipments for the transmitter and receiver are

more expensive and complex

3. A much wider bandwidth is required by FM, up to

10 times larger than needed by AM. This is the
most significant disadvantage of AM

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Frequency Modulation
Amplitude modulation has two drawbacks; that is serious
deficiencies in dynamic range and in noise immunity

For these reason, Frequency Modulation (FM) is

introduced. This is due FM is offering a wide dynamic
range which is suitable for high fidelity system such as in
FM stereo and can reduce the effect of noise

However, it require a wide bandwidth and a complex

system transceiver

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FM Waveform

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PM Communication Chart

Continuous Wave

Amplitude Angle
Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
DSBFC DSBSC Vestigial SSB Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Phase Modulation (PM)

Phase modulation is a system in which the phase of the

carrier signal is varied by the information signal. The
amplitude of the carrier is kept constant.

The phase in the equation v Vc cos(c )

is varied so that its magnitude is proportional to

instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

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Phase Modulation (PM)

With PM, the maximum frequency deviation occurs during

the zero crossings of the modulating signal. That is, the
is proportional to the slope or first derivative of the
f
modulating signal.

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Phase Modulation (PM)
PM equation: vc (t ) Vc cos c (t )
If Carrier signal vm (t ) Vm cos m (t )
Modulating signal
The expression for PM wave is:

vPM (t ) Vc cos(c )t
where

vm (t ) kVm cos mt

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Phase Modulation (PM)

Giving
vPM (t ) Vc cos(ct kVm cos mt )

where
kVm m p

= is the maximum value of phase change

introduced by this particular modulation signal
and is proportional to the maximum amplitude of
the modulating signal

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Phase Modulation (PM)
The range for
is
The value of is called the modulation index for PM,
which is denoted by mp

So, general equation for PM is

vPM (t ) Vc cos(ct m p cos mt )

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Phase Modulation (PM)

9/18/2016
An example of a Phase Modulation Waveform
Nurul/DEE 3413/Modulation 109
Comparison between PM & FM
Comparisons between PM and FM

1. The modulation index is defined differently in each system

f
In FM its modulation index :
mf
fm

In PM its modulation index : m p KVm

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Comparison between PM & FM
2. In PM, the phase deviation is proportionally to the
amplitude of the modulating signal and is independent
of its frequency

3. In FM, the frequency deviation is proportionally to

the amplitude of the modulating signal Vm as well
as its frequency, fm

4. The main difference between PM and FM, is how the

information signal will change the carrier signal.

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Communication System Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

DSBFC DSBSC Vestigial SSB

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Modulation 3

Digital Modulation
Analogue Pulse Modulation

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Digital Modulation Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Pulse
Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

DSBFC DSBSC Vestigial SSB

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Introduction

Pulse modulation includes many difference methods of

converting information into pulse form for transferring
pulses from a source to a destination.

Pulse modulation
Analog Pulse Modulation (APM)
Digital Pulse Modulation

Pulse modulation can be used to transmit analogue

information, it is first converted into pulses by the
process of sampling.

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Sampling
Sampling is the process of taking a periodic sample of the
waveform to be transmitted.

The sampling theorem (Nyquist theorem) is used to

determined minimum sampling rate for any signal so that
the signal will be correctly restored at the receiver.

Nyquists Sampling theorem:

fs 2 fm
Where fs = sampling frequency
fm(max) = maximum frequency of the modulating signal

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Sampling

Three basic condition of sampling process:

1. Sampling at fs=2fm(max)

V (volt)

f (Hz)
fs 2fs 3fs
fm(max) f +f
fs-fm(max) s m(max)

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Sampling
2. Sampling at fs>2fm(max)

V (volt)
Guardband

f (Hz)
fs 2fs
fm(max) f -f
s m(max)
fs+fm(max)

This sampling rate creates a guard band between fm(max)

and the lowest frequency component fs-fm(max) of the
sampling harmonics.

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Sampling
3. Sampling at fs<2fm(max)
V (volt)
Aliasing distortion

f (Hz)
fs 2fs 3fs
fs-fm(max)
fm(max)
fs+fm(max)
Aliasing: the distortion produced by the overlapping
components from adjacent bands
Aliasing occurs when a signal is sampled below its
Nyquist rate

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Analogue Pulse Modulation Chart

Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation

PAM PWM PPM

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Analog Pulse Modulation (APM)

In APM, the carrier signal is in the form of pulse

form, and the modulated signal is where one of
the characteristics either (amplitude, width,
or position) is changed according to the
modulating/audio signal.

Three common techniques of APM:

Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

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Waveforms for PAM, PWM and PPM

Modulating signal

carrier signal

PAM
(dual polarity)

PWM

PPM

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
It is very similar to AM

The amplitude of a carrier signal is varied

according to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

Two type PAM

Dual- polarity PAM
Single -polarity PAM

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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

The technique of varying the width of the constant

amplitude pulse proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

PWM gives a better signal to noise performance than PAM

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Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

PPM is when the position of a constant width and

constant amplitude pulse within prescribed time slot is
varied according to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

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Modulation 4

Digital Modulation
Digital Pulse Modulation

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Digital Pulse Modulation Chart

Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation

PAM PWM PPM

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Digital Pulse Modulation (DPM)

Digital modulation is the process by which digital

symbols are transformed into waveforms that are
compatible with the characteristics of the channel

In DPM, a code is used to represent the amplitude

of the samples that has been divided into various
levels.

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Digital Pulse Modulation (DPM)
Digital system offers some advantages compared to analog
system. There are:
Immune to channel noise and interference
Signals and messages can be coded for error detection and
correction
Can carry a combination of traffics
It is easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital signal
More economical

Disadvantages:
Requires significantly more bandwidth
Requires precise time synchronization between the clocks in the
transmitter and receivers

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

PCM is a form of digital modulation

where groups of coded pulses are used
to represent the analog signal.

The analog signal is sampled and

converted to a fixed-length, serial binary
number for transmission.

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A Block Diagram of a PCM system
(single channel)
Digital signal
Transmitter
Analog Low Digital
Sampler Quantizer Coder
Signal Pass Modulator
(i/p) Filter
(LPF)

Channel

Low
Analog
Pass Expandor Decoder Demodulator
Signal Filter
(o/p) (LPF)

Receiver
Digital signal
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PCM
LPF (Pre alias filter)
Is used to attenuate those high frequency components of the
signal that lie outside the band of interest

Sampler
The filtered signal is sampled at a rate higher than the Nyquist
rate

Quantizer
The conversion of an analog (continuous) sampler of the
signal into a digital (discrete) form is called quantizing
process. It consists of prescribed numbers of discrete
amplitude levels

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Principles of PCM

Three main process in PCM transmission are

sampling, quantization and coding.

Sampling
Quantization
Encoding

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Principles of PCM
Sampling
Process of taking samples of the analog signals at
given interval of time. Only samples are being
transmitted. If sufficient samples are sent and
sampling theorem are met, the original signal can be
constructed at the receiver f 2 f
s m
Quantization
Quantization is a process of assigning the analog
signal samples to a pre-determined discrete levels.
The number of quantization levels, L depends on the
number of bits per sample, n, used to code the signal
where
L 2n
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Principles of PCM

The magnitude of the minimum stepsize of the

quantization levels is called resolution,
v
The resolution depends on the maximum
voltage, Vmax and the minimum voltage, Vmin of
the information signal, where
Vmax V
v min
L 1

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Principles of PCM

Minimum stepsize
(resolution)

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Principles of PCM

Illustration of the quantization process

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Principles of PCM
Quantization error or quantization noise is the
distortion introduced during the quantization process
when the modulating signal is not an exact value of
the quantization level.
The maximum quantization error,
v
Qe
2
Quantization error can be reduced by increasing the
number of quantization levels, but this will increase the
bandwidth required.

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Principles of PCM

Encoding
In this process, the samples that has been divided
into various levels is coded into respective codes
where the samples that are the same number of level
are coded into the same code

n log 2 L
n = no of bit
L = quantization level

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Example of binary number and 3-bit pulse code is shown
below:

Quantized level Binary number Pulse waveform

1 000
2 001
3 010
4 011
5 100
6 101
7 110
8 111
9/18/2016 140
3-bit PCMNurul/DEE
code3413/Modulation
and waveform
PCM
Amplitude sampling point

Input signal

Sampling pulse

Sampled signal

Quantized signal

PCM code
PCM signal
9/18/2016 Nurul/DEE 3413/Modulation 141
PCM transmission bit rate and
bandwidth
Transmission bit rate (R) is the rate of information
transmission (bits/s).

It depends on the sampling frequency and the number

of bit per sample used to encode the signal.

Transmission bandwidth is equal to transmission bit rate

R nf s (bits/sec)

Transmissionbandwidth nf s (Hz)

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MODEM
MODEM stands for MODulator and DEModulator.

Modem is an interface device consists of modulator and

demodulator used in point-to-point data communication
systems, through the public switching telephone
networks (PSTN).

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MODEM
Functions of a modem
At the transmitter
It coverts digital data signal that are compatible
to the transmission line characteristics. That is, it
converts 1 and 0s of binary signal into FSK,
QPSK or QAM signals. Also it gives voltage and
current appropriate for interfacing with the
telephone line

At the receiver
It converts analog signal back to digital data
signals. That is, it converts FSK, QPSK or QAM
signals into binary signal.

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MODEM

MODEM MODEM
Modulator Modulator
PC PSTN PC
Demodulator Demodulator

RS232 Telephone line RS232

A connection of 2 computer terminals using modems

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Digital Modulation Technique
There are several digital modulation techniques used to
modulate digital signal or data, depending on the
application, the rate of transmission required,
allocated bandwidth and cost.

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Digital Pulse Modulation Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation

PAM PWM PPM

ASK PSK FSK

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Amplitude shift keying (ASK)

In ASK, a carrier wave is switched ON and OFF by the

input data or binary signals.

Data ASK ASK signal

modulator

carrier
ASK generator

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Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
During a mark (binary 1), a carrier wave is
transmitted and during a space (binary 0) the
carrier is suppressed. Hence, it is also known as ON-
OFF keying (OOK)
1 0 1 1

ASK Waveform

Application of ASK
It is used in multichannel telegraph systems.
Simple ASK is no longer used in digital communication systems
due to noise problems.

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

FSK is a similar to standard FM except the modulating

signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete
voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog
waveform
1 0 1 1
f1
Data
f2
FSK signal
FSK generator

Two different carrier frequency are used and they are

switched ON and OFF by the binary signals
1 ON 0-OFF

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FSK
Application of FSK
FSK signaling schemes are used mainly for low-speed
digital data transmissions.

Advantages of FSK over ASK

ASK needs automatic gain control (AGC) to overcome
fading effect.
Relatively easy for FSK generation

The constant amplitude property for the carrier signal

does not waste power and does produce some
immunity to noise.

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Phase Shift keying (PSK)
PSK is similar to Phase Modulation except the PSK input
is a digital signal and there are limited number of output
phase possible

The binary signal are used to switch the phase of carrier

wave between two values which are normally 0 and
180
ASK
Data ASK signal
modulator

carrier PSK generator

1 0 1 1
m(t)
For binary 1, the carrier has one phase.
For binary 0, the carrier is reversed by 180
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Phase Shift Keying

Bit 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Modulation 5

Multiplexing

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Multiplexing System Chart

Communication
System
Multiplexing

Continuous Wave Digital Wave FDM TDM WDM

Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation

PAM PWM PPM

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Multiplexing

Multiplex is a technique of transmission of information

from more than one source to more than one
destination on the same medium or facility.

Advantages:
Many signals can share an existing channel and make
better use of the channel capacity

allow several different signal to be clustered into a

single group, for easy handling and maintenance

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Multiplexing

Multiplexer Multiplexer

Computers Terminals
Four simultaneous transmissions on a single circuit

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Multiplexing
Three common techniques of multiplexing:-

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

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Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Source 1 Channel 1 1

Source 2 Multiplexer Channel 2 Multiplexer 2

Source 3 Channel 3 3

In FDM, multiple sources that originally occupied the same

frequency spectrum are each converted to a different
frequency band and transmitted simultaneously over a
single wideband transmission system.

FDM is an analog multiplexing scheme, where the

information entering an FDM system is analog and it
remains analog throughout transmission

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FDM

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FDM system - transmitter FDM system - receiver
Time division multiplexing

Time division multiplexing (TDM) shares the circuits time

allocation.

TDM is compatible with digital signals and makes good use

of digital circuitry for these signal

Simplistically, TDM physically switches from originator to

originator to share the time available, and the receiving
unit does the same in synchronism.

Source 1 1

Source 2 Multiplexer 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Multiplexer 2

Source 3 3
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TDM

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TDM system
Comparison between TDM and FDM

TDM: the individual channels are assigned to different

time slots but jumbled together in the frequency domain.
FDM : the individual channels are assigned to different
frequency slots but jumbled together in the time domain

TDM offers simpler instrumentation. In FDM, it requires

an analog subcarrier modulator, bandpass filter and
demodulator for every message signal

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Comparison between TDM and FDM

There is no crosstalk or interference between adjacent

channels in TDM as present in FDM. The interference in
FDM is normally due to imperfect bandpass filtering
and non-linear cross modulation

In FDM, the bandwidth is used effectively

The transmission medium of TDM is subjected to fading

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

WDM is a technology that enables many optical signals to

be transmitted simultaneously by a single fiber cable

The basic principle behind WDM involves the

transmission of multiples signals using several
wavelengths without their interfering with one another.

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WDM versus FDM

WDM is essentially the as FDM, where several signals are

transmitted using different carriers, occupying non-
overlapping bands of a frequency or wavelength spectrum

The most obvious difference between WDM and FDM is that

optical frequencies (in THz) are much higher than radio
frequencies (in MHz and GHz)

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WDM versus FDM
FDM: channels all propagate at the same time and over
the same transmission medium and take the same
transmission path, but they occupy different bandwidths

WDM: each channel propagates down the same

transmission medium at the same time, but each channel
occupies a different bandwidth (wavelength) and each
wavelength takes different transmission path.

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Communication System Chart
Multiplexing

FDM
Communication
System
TDM

WDM
Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)
FM PAM ASK
DSBFC
PM PWM PSK
DSBSC
PPM FSK
SSB

Vestigial

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