C A S E S T U D I E S O N A P P LY I N G B E S T P R AC T I C E TO I N - S I T U CO N C R E TE F R A M E B U I L D I N G S

St George Wharf Case Study

Slab deflections

Introduction
The European Concrete Building Project
at Cardington was a joint initiative aimed
at improving the performance of the
concrete frame industry. It led to the
preparation of a series of Best Practice
Guides, giving recommendations for
improving the process of constructing insitu concrete frame buildings.

Figure 1: Lusas deflection prediction output for a prow end of St George Wharf

In most cases adequate control of deflections may be achieved by

complying with specified span/depth ratios. However there are
some situations where they should be calculated in order to comply
with tolerances concerning cladding and partitions.

Key Points
This Case Study discusses experiences of predicting and measuring
actual deflections in reinforced concrete flat slabs.
As part of a programme to disseminate
and apply what has been learnt from
Cardington, BRE has subsequently
worked directly with those involved in
St George Wharf, a high-profile, 100,000 m2
mixed-use phased development on the
River Thames.

Prediction of deflections in two-way spanning systems is not straightforward

and deflections may not be easy to calculate by hand.

BRE worked jointly with the developers,

St George (South London), their
engineers, White Young
Green,
and specialist concrete contractors,
Stephenson, to develop and implement
process improvements tailored to the
St George Wharf site.

Early age construction loading can have a significant impact on deflections as

a result of induced cracking. Appropriate modelling of cracking behaviour is
therefore essential if realistic deflections are to be predicted.

This work has led to a series of

innovations being trialled, the results of
which are summarised in this series of
Best Practice Case Studies.

Past experience suggests error bounds typically +0/-30% in the calculated

deflection resulting from conservative assumptions about material properties.

www.bca.org.uk

www.stephenson-ssc.co.uk

www.wyg.com

Deflections and the times at which they occur should be considered in

conjunction with the limits associated with them. In general deflections need
to be considered both before and after installation of cladding and partitions.

The sensitivity of the predicted deflections to the assumptions made,

particularly the tensile strength of the concrete, should be assessed and the
likely error bounds determined.

www.bre.com

www.dti.gov.uk

www.construct.org.uk

www.stgeorgeplc.com

www.concretecentre.com

As for many similar developments, the

specific issues in relation to deflections
for the St George Wharf development
were:
The influence of deflections on internal
partitions and the required allowance
for these.
The tolerances on the precast cladding
fixed around the perimeter of the
structure.
A further issue, which is becoming
increasingly important, is the influence of
early age loading, as there is a desire to
speed up the floor cycle. In-situ reinforced
concrete structures can be subject to
significant loads during construction.
This results from the need to support
freshly cast slabs above those already
constructed, and for the construction to
support its self-weight when struck. In
many cases, construction loads from
casting the slab above will be greater
than service loads and will govern longterm slab deflections.
Since precast cladding is normally
manufactured to fixed dimensions, it
is generally the deflection of the slab
relative to the supports around the
perimeter, both before and after
installation, that is of particular interest.
In contrast, with internal partitions, it is
generally the deflections subsequent to
their installation which are of most
interest because the internal partitions
can be adjusted to fit the dimensions at
the time of installation. Since partitions
can in theory be installed in any location
at any stage after construction it is
prudent to calculate deflections for this
purpose at the positions where maximum
deflections are likely to occur (i.e. at the
centre of a bay). A worst-case load
history should be assumed, which could
involve less early age loading so that
greater deflection occurs at a later stage.
The load history of the slab cannot be
predicted precisely but, in practice,
reasonable assumptions may be made,
based on likely construction sequence
and accepted values for additional
construction loads. The magnitude of
deflections depends on both the level
and duration of loading and concrete

Curvature in reinforced concrete flat slabs

in flexure lies between that of an
uncracked and a fully cracked section. In
practice some cracking will be anticipated
in flat slabs and this will vary, depending
on the location and load history. For this
reason the most thorough approaches
involve integrating curvatures at different
positions in different directions across
the slab, based on predicted levels of
cracking. In practice an iterative process
may be required to arrive at the extent of
cracking at a particular location.

Construction loading
Figure 2 shows a typical load history for
the slabs at St George Wharf where two
levels of backprops were used. It can be
seen that the slab carried its self-weight
when struck and the peak load occurred
when the slab above was cast. For load
histories similar to that in Figure 2, the
theoretical peak construction load is
given by:
wpeak = wself + wform + c(wself +wcon) .1
Where
wpeak = peak construction load
wself = self weight of slab e.g. 6 kN/m2
for a 250 mm thick slab
wform = weight of formwork (a value of
0.5 kN/m2 is normally taken).
c is a carry through factor of at least
1/(number of supporting floors)
wcon is a construction load comprising
formwork etc. (a value between 0.75 and
1.5 kN/m2 is reasonable)
This applies to situations where:
The most recently cast slab carries its
self-weight after striking;
Flying form systems are used so that
the formwork load is applied before any
backpropping is installed; but,
Backpropping is installed prior to any
other significant construction loads.
Based on measurements in prop forces at
Cardington and assuming little significant
pre-load, Beeby [1] showed that the peak
construction load occurred in the top slab
of the supporting assembly when the
slab above was cast. Beebys work shows
that it is conservative to take c as 0.7
provided there is at least one level of
backpropping. The value of c will be
lower if the backprops are preloaded but

10

method: an effective concrete elastic

modulus Ecomposite can be used to
account for the different ages at which
loads are applied and their duration.

1st slab above cast

d
2nd slab above cast

Theoretical load (kN/M2)

Adequate control of deflections can

usually be achieved for in-situ reinforced
concrete beams and slabs by compliance
with specified span/depth ratios.
However, as flat slab structures become
more slender, serviceability is increasingly
governing their design. This publication is
concerned with situations where
prediction of deflections is considered
desirable or is a specific requirement.

strength at the time of loading. Ideally,

designers need to consider both the
influence of the likely tensile strength of
the concrete at key stages in the
construction process and the influence of
the load history on creep.

Ecomposite =
wi/
wi/Eceffi) 2

Where
Eceffi = Ec/(1+i)

5
3rd slab above cast

Slab struck

i denotes the load increment.

For flat slabs subjected to a construction
load history similar to that in Figure 2,
Vollum [4] has shown that the combined
effect of cracking and shrinkage
increases deflections in flat slabs
by a factor of around 2.

3
2
1
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

Floor 4
(measured)

The superposition of creep coefficients to

obtain overall creep effects can become
quite complicated. For load histories
similar to those shown in Figure 2, a
conservative approach is to use a
reduced elastic modulus to account for
the effects of creep, shrinkage and
cracking combined. The corresponding
reduced elastic moduli are virtually
independent of slab thickness for a
typical 250 mm slab, the reduced elastic
moduli are:

Predicted
(fct=3 N/mm2

4.1 kN/mm2 for a concrete cylinder/cube

strength of C30/37

Time from casting (days)

Figure 2: Typical load history for slabs at St George Wharf

25

KEY
Floor 3
(measured)

20

Deflection (mm)

Introduction

15

10

Predicted
(uncracked)

6.0 kN/mm2 for a strength of C50/60

These values should be used in conjunction
with a maximum loading of wperm as
defined below to arrive at total deflections.

5.1 kN/mm2 for a strength of C40/50

50

100

150

Time (days)
Figure 3: Maximum deflections at St George Wharf

it is difficult to be sure of the amount of

preload achieved in practice.

strips spanning in orthogonal directions.

The main limitations of this approach are:

There are some other interesting points to

note in Figure 2. The first is the duration for
which the peak loads have been sustained.
The second is the effect of preload in the
backprops. Preloading has reduced the initial
peak construction load when constructing the
slab directly above, and because two levels of
backpropping were used, the theoretical peak
load when constructing the third slab above
was actually higher than when constructing
the second.

The method may be applicable only to

structures with rectangular grids.

Methods of deflection prediction

Current advice for predicting deflections is
given in References 2 and 3.
Deflections can be estimated in flat slabs by
the judicious adding of deflections in beam

Deflections are sensitive to column moments

that are not accurately predicted by equivalent
frame analysis.
It is not possible to model the effect of
variation in moment across the width of
beam strips.
For this reason the best method for predicting
slab deflections in two way spanning systems
may be finite element analysis. The simplest
approach is to carry out an elastic analysis in
which the elastic modulus is reduced to
account for the effects of cracking, creep and
shrinkage. The effect of creep can be taken
into account in deflection calculations using
a method known as the effective modulus

There are various components of load

that generate long-term deflection.
The influence of short-term construction
load on long-term deflection may be
assumed to be adequately covered using
the methods above. In practice most
structures only ever experience a
proportion of the imposed load. For this
reason the total deflection in the context
of, for example, assessing precast
cladding fit is probably best estimated as
aperm This is the deflection calculated
under the influence of the total dead load
plus a proportion of the imposed load
(typically 30%). This combined load can
be defined as wperm.
For the purposes of assessing deflections
of partitions, which can be cut to fit on
installation, it is the subsequent
deflections that are of primary interest.
Based on research at Cardington, Vollum
recommends that this deflection d can
be estimated from:
a = aperm(1 - 0.55wself/wperm) ...3
Where wself is the self-weight of the slab
only.

More accurate estimates of deflection can

be obtained using cracked section
analysis, which can be carried out on a
number of commercially available finite
element packages.

Prediction of deflections at
St George Wharf
Deflections were predicted initially at
St George Wharf using various methods
based on finite element analysis [4]. The
designer, White Young Green, used Lusas
Finite Element software to carry out an
elastic analysis to estimate slab
deflections (a typical slab is illustrated in
Figure 1). The elastic modulus was
reduced to account for creep but no
reduction was made for cracking.
Consequently, the predicted deflections
were significantly less than those
measured in the structure.
Deflections were also predicted at stages
a to f in Figure 2 using a non-linear finite
element programme developed at
Imperial College. The effect of construction
loading was included in the analysis.

Measurements of construction
loading and deflection
An extensive programme of deflection
measurements was undertaken. The
deflections were measured using simple
levelling equipment, which worked well
within the limits of accuracy obtainable
using such techniques (typically +/-1 mm).
Deflections were typically measured
before and after striking and before and
after application of peak construction
loads. Tests were carried out to establish
the creep and shrinkage characteristics of
the concrete.

Findings
A set of measurements taken at the prow
end of the development have provided
the following insights.
1. The predicted deflections from the
Imperial College non-linear finite
element analysis compared well with
the measured deflections as shown in
Figure 3 and were significantly greater
than those originally predicted, which
neglected cracking. Figure 3 also
shows that predictions based on an
uncracked section, can significantly
underestimate self-weight deflections.
2. Care should be taken to ensure that
boundary constraints are accurately
modelled in deflection calculations.
Columns are best modelled with threedimensional brick elements in finite
element analyses.

C A S E S T U D I E S O N A P P LY I N G B E S T P R AC T I C E TO I N - S I T U CO N C R E TE F R A M E D B U I L D I N G S
3. Cracking was observed at soffit
locations and on the tops of the slabs
over columns.
4. The cracking observed appears to be
more extensive than at Cardington.
This may be due to the more typical
concrete strengths achieved on this
project resulting in the cracking
moment being exceeded by a greater
margin and at more locations. The
cracks may also be more visible due to
the reduced floor to ceiling heights.
5. Despite deflections having been larger
than originally predicted, this is not
believed to have caused problems.
6. Based on the information collected the
developer intends to review the need
for complicated deflection head details
on future phases of the project.

Conclusions
1. Serviceability issues, particularly
deflections and vibrations, are
becoming increasingly important with
the move towards longer span, more
slender, reinforced concrete flat slab
structures.
2. Reliance on span/depth ratios may be
insufficient, particularly if deflection
limits are specified for particular items
such as cladding and partitions.
Furthermore, better knowledge of
deflections on site has the potential to
provide economy in specifying items
such as deflection head details and the
movements that they must
accommodate.
3. Prediction of deflections in two-way
spanning systems is not
straightforward and may not be easy to
calculate by hand, leaving finite
element analysis as the only viable
option.
4. The limitations of standard finite
element software based on linear
elastic analysis for predicting
deflections should be recognised,
particularly its sensitivity to the
assumed material properties and the
difficulty in accurately representing the
effects of cracking.

Recommendations
1. In general span/depth ratios may
continue to be used as a satisfactory
method of controlling deflections.
2. If deflections are to be predicted, then
as found at Cardington, the designer
should be aware that slab deflections
can be increased significantly by
cracking induced by construction
loading. If the deflections are not to be
underestimated, such cracking must be

allowed for when predicting

deflections.
3. The effect of peak construction loads
should ideally be considered at the
design stage when considering both
the serviceability and ultimate limit
states. This is because slabs are
subject to peak construction loads,
which tend to govern long-term
deflections and can theoretically be
close to the design ultimate load of
slabs with domestic loading.
4. Where deflections are likely to be an
issue and reliance on span/depth
ratios is not deemed sufficient, the
modelling employed should ideally be
sophisticated enough to allow the
sensitivity of predicted deflections to
the age, magnitude and duration of the
construction loads to be assessed.

Acknowledgements
The support of the DTI for this project
under the Partners in Innovation scheme
is gratefully acknowledged.
The Best Practice Guide, Flat slabs for
efficient concrete construction,
summarises work carried out on these
topics during the construction of the in
situ concrete building at Cardington.
This can be downloaded free from
the Downloads section of the
Concrete Centres website at
www.concretecentre.com and at
http://projects.bre.co.uk/ConDiv/
concrete%20frame/default.htm

The work undertaken and the conclusions

reached in relation to the innovations
described above should be viewed in the
context of the particular project on which
the innovations have been trialled.
This Case Study is underpinned by a full
report [4] giving the background and
further information on the work
undertaken.

References
1. Early striking of formwork and forces in
backprops by A. W. Beeby, BRE Report
394. Published by Construction
Research Communications, London,
2000.
2. Deflections in concrete slabs and
beams. Crowthorne, The Concrete
Society. A joint report from BCA, The
Concrete Society and RCC. To be
published 2003.
3. Approaches to the design of reinforced
concrete flat slabs by R. Moss. BRE
Report 422. Published by Construction
Research Communications, London,
2001.
4. Backprop forces and deflections in flat
slabs: construction at St George Wharf
by R. Vollum. BRE Report BR463, 2004.

Case Studies in this series of applying

best practice:
St George Wharf project overview
Early age concrete strength
assessment
Early age construction loading
Reinforcement rationalisation and
supply
Slab deflections
Special concretes

Ref TCC/03/06
First published 2004
Price group A
ISBN 1-904818-06-4
The Concrete Centre 2004
Published by The Concrete Centre on
behalf of the project partners.
www.concretecentre.com.
For further copies of these Best Practice
Case Studies contact
www.concretebookshop.com
All advice or information from The Concrete
Centre is intended for those who will
evaluate the significance and limitations of
its contents and take responsibility for its
use and application. No liability (including
that for negligence) for any loss resulting
from such advice or information is accepted.
Readers should note that all Centre
publications are subject to revision from time
to time and should therefore ensure that
they are in possession of the latest version.