this section will be looking at the various forms of secondary storage devices (media).

For each
device you should be familiar with the following details:

Seek time - The average time taken from requesting data to starting to read the requested
data

Capacity - The amount of data it is possible to store on a medium

Write type - Whether it is read only, write only, or readable and writable

Cost - How much it costs per megabyte

Access type - Whether it uses Random Access or Serial Access

sequential access requires all memory locations before the one sought to be read, before reaching it. Random
access memory allows you to jump directly to the memory location you are seeking

Pay special attention to devices with an orange background, you need to be able to describe exactly
how they work!

1 Magnetic media
o

1.1 Hard disk

1.2 Magnetic Tape drive

2 Optical media
o

2.1 CD-ROM

2.2 CD-R

2.3 CD-RW

3 Solid-state memory
o

3.1 USB (memory stick) Flash Drive

3.2 Memory cards

Magnetic media[edit]
Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal. This metal is then processed
by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros. Historically, magnetic media has
been very popular for storing programs, data, and making backups. It looks set to continue in this
role for some time. However, solid state technology is starting to be used more and more, storing
programs and data on new devices such as mobile phones and cameras.
Magnetic media

Device

Size

Hard Disk

Up to 8 Terabytes

Magnetic Tape

Up to 2 Terabytes

Hard disk[edit]

Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)

Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store programs and data. They are increasingly
cheap and more and more companies are using them to back things up. Hard disks can vary in

physical size with some disks getting as small as your thumb. More closely packed platters, greater
density of data on each platter to allow for more tracks and cylinders and the ability to write smaller
magnetics spots have all been developments in the design of hard disks to increase their storage
capacity. The capacity of a commercial disk is currently up to about 4 terabytes allowing users to
read and write to them. They are constructed from several key components:

Platter - Metallic disks where One or both sides of the platter are magnetized, allowing data
to be stored. The platter spins thousands of times a second around the spindle and spins
continuously when in operation. There may be several platters, with data stored across them.
The disk is divided into tracks and sectors with data represented by magnetising spots on the
the disk.

Head - The head reads magnetic data from the platter. For a drive with several platters there
may be two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and bottom of each

Actuator Arm - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk, so that data can be read
and written to particular locations and you can access data in a Random fashion, you don't need
to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular bit of information, you can jump
right there. Seek time is very low.

Power connector - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and run the
electronics

IDE connector - allows for data transfer from and to the platters

Jumper block - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as RAID

For the exam you must be able to explain how a hard disk works:
1. The platters spin around the spindle
2. data is requested to be read from a particular area of a platter
3. the actuator arm moves the read head to that track
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the read head, data is read
5. Read data is sent from the IDE connector to main memory

Description of a hard disk platter

Writing data is very similar:

1. The platters spin around the spindle
2. data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
3. the actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to

4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data is
written to the platter
Pros
Fast seek times
Random access
High capacities possible
Low cost per megabyte

Cons
Very susceptible to damage from physical shocks

Magnetic Tape drive[edit]

DDS tape drive. Above, from left right:DDS-4 tape (20 GB), 112m Data8 tape (2.5 GB), QIC DC-6250 tape (250
MB), and a 3.5"floppy disk (1.44 MB)

Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to deliver software and back up data since the
early days of computing. Nowadays they are used mostly for corporate backing up and archiving of
data. Tapes are sequential data stores, meaning that if you had information stored at the end of the
tape you would have to wind your way through the entirety of the tape before you could read it.
There is no random access like with a hard disk! Tapes can be several terabytes in size and reading
and writing can be very fast as long as you read or write continuous sections of the tape at once.
Pros
Fast
High capacity
Cheap per megabyte

Cons

Serial read and write capabilities

Optical media[edit]
Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface. There are several different
types of disk out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with the pits and lands getting closer
together for higher volume disks. The principle behind how each of them works is the same.

pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!

Optical media

Device

Type

Size

CDROM

CDR

CD-

Read Only

Write once then Read only

re-Writable

Read Only

Write once then Read only

re-Writable

650 900
MB

RW
4.7

DVDROM

DVDR

9.4
GB

Image

DVDRW

re-Writable

DVDRAM

Bluray (BD)
disc

HD
DVD

Re-Writable and Read Only versions available. Uses a

blue laser, that is able to recognise smaller pits and
lands, which allows for the pits and lands to be more
closely packed, and so store more data

25 128
GB

(obsolet
e)

CD-ROM[edit]

close up of the surface of a CD being read

A CD-ROM is a metal disc embedded into a plastic protective housing. Each disc has to be
'mastered'; this is the process of creating the CD and placing the data on it. CDs are WORM (Write
Once, Read Many) media; this refers to the fact that once they have been mastered, there is no way
to change the data on them.
Reading from a CD-ROM
1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track is
made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes of binary data
2. A low-powered laser is shone on the metallic surface and the reflection is captured in a
photodiode sensor, the lands reflect differently to the pits, meaning it can tell the difference
between a 1 and a 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track

4. The binary data (the 1s and 0s) are put together and the CD-ROM has been read
Pros
Cheap
Data cannot be written over by the consumer
Cons
Slow seek time
Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
Can only be written to with a very high powered laser, which is not usually available in home
computers
Data cannot be written over

CD-R[edit]
The CD-R is made of a reflective metal disk with a layer of (usually green, opaque) dye on top.
Writing to a CD-R
1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside.
2. A high-powered laser is shone onto the CD-R, changing the transparency (permanently) of
the dye above. The transparent and opaque parts represent binary 1s and 0s
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track, putting the binary data onto the CD-R in a
spiral track
4. The data has been written
Reading from a CD-R
1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track is
made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes of binary data
2. A low-powered laser is shone on the surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode
sensor. The opaque dye will reflect differently to the transparent dye (which would just reflect
the metal underneath it), meaning it can tell the difference between a 1 and 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track
4. The binary data (the 1s and 0s) are put together and the CD-R has been read

Pros
Cheap
Can be written to using a conventional home computer
Cons
Slow seek time
Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
Data cannot be written over

CD-RW[edit]
The CD-RW is made of a reflective metal disk with a layer of a special ('phase change') metal on top.
Writing to a CD-RW
1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside.
2. A high-powered laser is shone onto the CD-RW. Depending on whether this is very high
powered or heats at a slightly lower temperature, the top layer of metal cools differently.
These will result in different amounts of reflectivity, which represent the 1s and 0s.
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track, putting the binary data onto the CD in a spiral
track
4. The data has been written
Reading from a CD-RW
1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track is
made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes of binary data
2. A low-powered laser is shone on the surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode
sensor. The different ways the metal has cooled reflect different amounts, meaning it can tell
the difference between a 1 and 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track
4. The binary data (the 1s and 0s) are put together and the CD-RW has been read
Pros
Cheap

Can be written to using a conventional home computer

Cons
Slow seek time
Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
Data can be changed after writing
Not all CD players (mostly older ones) can read CD-RWs, as opposed to CD-ROMs and CD-Rs

Solid-state memory[edit]
Solid-state memory

Device

Description

USB flash drive

Up to 256 GB

Memory card

Up to 256 GB

USB (memory stick) Flash Drive[edit]

Internals of a typical USB flash drive

1

USB Standard-A plug

USB mass storage controller device

Test points

Flash memory chip

Crystal oscillator

LED

Write-protect switch (Optional)

Space for second flash memory chip

USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there are no moving parts. This is very useful for
seek times as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement, meaning seek time is very low and it
allows for fast Random Access Memory. Flash drives can be set to read only mode, but they will
always allow for reading and writing. The size of flash drives is not as great as a Hard Disk and they
are generally much more expensive per megabyte
1. put drive into USB socket
2. USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from the USB
3. The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation Table) to
the Computer
4. [Reading] The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted to the
USB port
5. [Reading] The USB returns the data at the location requested
6. [Writing] The computer sends data to the USB port where it is place into empty space on the
drive
7. [Writing] The computer then requests a new version of the file and folder structure
Pros

Very fast seek times

Very portable

Cons
Limited capacity
Expensive per MB when compared to Hard Disks

Memory cards[edit]
Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can often be converted into Flash Drives. They
have different connectors and are generally smaller than USB Flash drives allowing for them to be
used in cameras, mobile phones and game consoles.

comparison of different memory cards

DVD ( "digital versatile disc"[4][5] or "digital video disc"[6]) is a digital optical disc storage format,
invented and developed byPhilips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store
any kind of digital data, and is widely used for software and other computer files, and for video
programs watched using DVD players. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discswhile
having the same dimensions.
Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the
DVD. Such discs are known as DVD-ROM, because data can only be read and not written or
erased. Blank recordable DVD discs (DVD-R and DVD+R) can be recorded once using a DVD

recorder and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable DVDs (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM)
can be recorded and erased many times.

In computing and optical disc recording technologies, an optical disc (OD) is a flat, usually circular
disc which encodes binary data (bits) in the form of pits (binary value of 0 or off, due to lack of
reflection when read) and lands (binary value of 1 or on, due to a reflection when read) on a special
material (often aluminium[1] ) on one of its flat surfaces. The encoding material sits atop a thicker
substrate (usuallypolycarbonate) which makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing
layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the entire disc surface and
extending from the innermost track to the outermost track. The data is stored on the disc with
a laser or stamping machine, and can be accessed when the data path is illuminated with a laser
diode in an optical disc drive which spins the disc at speeds of about 200 to 4,000 RPM or more,
depending on the drive type, disc format, and the distance of the read head from the center of the
disc (inner tracks are read at a higher disc speed). Most optical discs exhibit a
characteristic iridescence as a result of the diffraction grating formed by its grooves.[2][3] This side of
the disc contains the actual data and is typically coated with a transparent material, usuallylacquer.
The reverse side of an optical disc usually has a printed label, sometimes made of paper but often
printed or stamped onto the disc itself. Unlike the 3-inch floppy disk, most optical discs do not have
an integrated protective casing and are therefore susceptible to data transfer problems due to
scratches, fingerprints, and other environmental problems.

The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable floppy disk storage system that was introduced
by Iomega in late 1994. Originally, Zip disks launched with capacities of 100 MB, but later versions
increased this to first 250 MB and then 750 MB.
The format became the most popular of the superfloppy products which filled a niche in the late
1990s portable storage market. However, it was never popular enough to replace the 3.5-inch floppy
disk nor could ever match the storage size available on rewritable CDs and later rewritable
DVDs. USB flash drives ultimately proved to be the better rewritable storage medium among the
general public due to the near-ubiquity of USB ports on personal computers and soon after because
of the far greater storage sizes offered. Zip drives fell out of favor for mass portable storage during
the early 2000s

The Jaz drive is a removable hard disk storage system sold by the Iomega company from 1996 to
2002.

Following the success of the Iomega Zip drive, which stored data on removable magnetic cartridges
with 100MB nominal capacity, the company developed and released the Jaz drive with 1GB capacity
per removeable disk, increased to 2GB in 1998.
The Jaz drive had a SCSI interface, with both internal and external drive models. Iomega produced
a Jaz Jet SCSI adapter PCI card for PC's. Iomega also produced a number of external adapters,
including the Jaz Traveller interface that connected it to a standard parallel port, and, later, a SCSIUSB adapter and SCSI-Firewire adapter. An IDE version of the drive was planned, but never
released.

Disadvantages of Jaz drives

Limited storage capacity (1-2 GB).

Jaz disks are notoriously unreliable.

Jaz drives are expensive to buy and intall ($250 to $500 to buy and $30 to $150 to install).

Jaz disks are expensive ($50 to $150 each).

You need a minimum of 5 disks, preferably 9.

You need multiple disks per day for backing up large amounts of data such as your entire system.

Advantages of optical disk

The cost -per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low, because of their low cost and
enormous storage density.
The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal storage medium for reading
large blocks of sequential data, such as music.
Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write heads to rub against or crash into
the disk surface. This makes optical disks a more reliable storage medium than magnetic tapes or
magnetic disks.
Optical disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years. This makes them a better
storage medium for data archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.
Since data once stored on an optical disk becomes permanent, the danger of stored data
getting inadvertently erased/overwritten is not there with optical disks.
Due to their compact size and light weight, optical disks are easy to handle, store, and port
from one place to another.

1.

Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CD-ROM drive along with a sound board
and speakers. This allows computer systems to be also used as music systems, whenever desired.
Limitations

It is a read-only(permanent) storage medium. Data once recorded, cannot be erased, and

hence, the optical disks cannot be reused.
2.
The data access speed for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks.
3.
Optical disks require a more complicated drive mechanism than magnetic disks.