Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction........................................................................................................... 4
2.0 Process Description.............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Assumptions....................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Process Design and Methodology.......................................................................5
3.0 Operational Design.............................................................................................. 13
3.1 Control System Design..................................................................................... 13
3.2 Operating Procedures....................................................................................... 16
3.3 HAZID STUDY (S&T HEAT EXCHANGER)...............................................................18
4.0 Mechanical Engineering Design..........................................................................20
4.1 Mechanical Drawing............................................................................................ 25
Part B......................................................................................................................... 27
1.0 Introduction (Flash Vessel)........................................................................................... 27
1.1 Scope of work................................................................................................... 27
2.0 Process Design.................................................................................................... 27
2.1 Design methodology........................................................................................... 27
2.2 Basic Design Data............................................................................................... 28
2.3 Process design calculation.................................................................................. 28
3.0 Operational Design.............................................................................................. 30
3.2

Operating procedure..................................................................................... 31

Operational check out list procedure [6].........................................................................31

3.3 Safety Study (HAZID).......................................................................................... 34
4.0 Mechanical design............................................................................................... 38
4.1 Mechanical Drawing......................................................................................... 45
5.0

Critical Review................................................................................................. 46

Flash Tank.............................................................................................................. 46
Heat Exchanger...................................................................................................... 46
References................................................................................................................ 47

List of Figure
Figure 1 P&ID diagram for shell and tube heat exchanger.........................................................15
Figure 2 Torrispherical head [10]............................................................................... 21
Figure 3 Mechanical design of heat exchanger..........................................................25
Figure 4 Piping and Instrumentation diagram for flash tank........................................................30
Figure 5 Stresses in a cylindrical shell under combined loading [3]..............................................39
Figure 6 Principal stresses on up-wind side [3]......................................................................41
Figure 7 Typical straight skirt support design [3]....................................................................43
Figure 8 Flange ring dimensions [3].................................................................................. 44
Figure 9 Standard bolt size M24 and dimensions [3]................................................................44
Figure 10 Flash tank mechanical design................................................................................ 45

List of Table
Table 1 Stream table for the inlet and out stream of process fluid in HX-102.....................................3
Table 2 Iteration summary of condensing coefficient..................................................................8
Table 3: Iteration process for converging overall heat transfer coefficient.......................................10
Table 4 Design Outcome................................................................................................... 12
Table 5 Component of control system and its function in heat exchanger P&ID (figure 1)..................13
Table 6 Slurry spill accident respond ................................................................................... 16
Table 7 S&T Heat exchanger hazid study..................................................................17
Table 8 Standard skirt dimension........................................................................................ 24
Table 9 Heat exchanger specification sheet .........................................................................25

1.0 Introduction
Heat exchanger is selected as part of the major design with the purpose of heating up the spent liquor
recycled from the precipitation process downstream in the alumina refinery plant. The active caustic soda
content of the spent liquor, which intended to be recycled into digester for bauxite digestion, must be
raised to a temperature higher than that required in bauxite digestion so as to prevent the interruption of
physical and chemical conditions of the attack medium. This is mainly because usual bauxite temperature
being fed into digester is insufficient and the temperature of the attack liquor must be raised from 120 oC to
about 156oC in order to obtain a temperature of 145oC in the liquor for bauxite digestion. Theoretically,
the spent liquor recycled from precipitation process will circulate through a series of heaters and to be
heated up from 80oC to roughly 120oC by heat exchanging with vapor from the flash tank evaporator.
However, the main focus of the design is to achieve the outlet temperature of 110.8 oC as simulated in
SYSCAD at the last heater which feed with vapor from first flash tank in the alumina refinery plant [4].
The process parameter to achieve the design requirement is provided below where the data is extracted
from SYSCAD.
Table 1 Stream table for the inlet and out stream of process fluid in HX-102
Parameter
S021
S041
S040
Vapor fraction
1.00
0.00
0.00
Liquid fraction
0.00
1.00
1.00
Mass flowrate
13.17
13.17
1049.54
(kg/s)
Pressure (kPa)
263.54
263.54
101.33
Temperature (oC)
138.26
129.16
103.26
Heat duty ( kJ/h)
6.27E8
7.32E8
3.77E10
Power (kW)
-174282.07
-203207.80
-10430543.50

S042
0.00
1.00
1049.54
101.33
110.8
1.52E9
-10459469.30

1.1 Objective of the design

To design an effective heat exchanger with the determination for heat transfer area required from
the given heat duty and temperature difference between hot and cold stream.
Determination of pressure drop at the tube side of the heat exchanger and to achieve the shell side
pressure drop as in SYSCAD model.
Work out operational design which comprises of implementation of control system, operation
procedures and as well as HAZID and HAZOP study.
Work out the dimension required for the heat exchanger and as well as mechanical design.

2.0 Process Description

The heat exchanger will use energy from vapor hot stream discharged from flash tank to heat up the
process cold stream. The hot inlet stream of the heat exchanger is purely vapor phase with mass flow rate
and temperature of 13.17kg/s and 138.26 oC and exit at temperature of 129.16 oC. For the cold stream,
spent liquor enter the heater at a flow rate of 1049.54 kg/s and temperature of 103.26 oC and exit at
temperature 110.8oC and 303.3oC.

From the data provided above, the only data that is not reliable is pressure for the process cold stream
(S040 & S042). The SYSCAD model calculated it as atmospheric pressure as in steady state SYSCAD
model, it does not take into consideration of pressure drop calculation neither in pipeline nor in shell side
or tube side heat exchanger pressure drop. However, the inlet pressure for vapor stream is dependable as
SYSCAD able to calculate the flash tank pressure through VLE equilibrium calculation. It is also the
pressure which target to achieve at the shell side of heat exchanger.

2.1 Assumptions
1. Assume the pressure drop calculated by Kerns method at the tube side is reliable and accurate.
2. Ignore the non-condensable air in heat exchanger for ease of calculation. This is because in actual case
air might be dissolve in slurry liquid which pose the issue need to vent non- condensable air in heat
exchanger.
3. Total condensation is used in heat exchanger for the ease of calculation as only condensed liquid is
consider in heat exchanger.

2.2 Process Design and Methodology

In the heat exchanger design, Kerns method is selected due to its simple calculation method in providing
satisfactory heat transfer coefficient for standard design. The method developed was based on
experimental data for commercial heat exchangers and the data obtained were correlated by simple
equation analogous to equation of flow in tube. However, the drawback of the design method is that it
does not adequately account for baffle to shell and tube to baffle leakages and as well as bypassing. Hence,
the pressure drop estimated through the method is less satisfactory compared to Bell or Delaware method
[3].
1. Heat Exchanger Selection [2,3]
Shell and tube heat exchanger is chosen mainly due to the reason that it consists of large heating area per
unit volume and thus high heat transfer rate in a clean condition. Lower capital cost will be resulted in
comparison to that before the provision of sparing is taken into consideration for maintenance and
cleaning. In addition, it is a off the shelf solution with many suppliers and world renowned technology. On
the other hand, in high temperature application usually with temperature above 140 oC, it has the
disadvantages of high tendency for tube blockages, high scaling issues which make the cleaning and
maintenance difficult. Hence, split ring floating head is selected for the purposes of ease of cleaning
where defective tube can be replaced or plugged easily, shell side cleaning is favorable at infrequent
interval, much less bypass area as more tube per shell diameter can be accommodated than the pull
through floating head bundle. Moreover, it is more flexible with large temperature differential where it is
good in startup or emergency condition since thermal stress at operating level is low (low

T ) in the

process design.
As the stream 41 liquid fractions is 1.0 as shown in table 1 and purely water, it indicates that the vapor
undergoes condensation in heat exchanger and thus shell and tube condenser design should be considered.
2. Fluid Allocation [2,3]

Series of factors like corrosion, fouling and cleaning considerations have been accounted. Highly
corrosive spent liquor mainly due to its active content of caustic soda is assigned to be placed in the tubes
where the corroded tubes can be replaced easily. Moreover, cost also can be saved on material construction
on the shell side where the body of the shell needs not to be made of corrosive-resistance material. As
process fluid will foul the tube, it is vital to control the process fluid in tube to be in the range of 1-3m/s so
that to reduce scaling and obtain reasonable maintenance frequency. Therefore, spent liquor is to be
allocated in the tube side of heat exchanger. On the other hand, shell side condensation of vapor is
preferable due to the reasons stated before.
Detailed Design Calculation
In the design, horizontal baffled shell and tube condenser is employed as the design is good for single
component vapor, relatively high and low pressure drop design, and liquid coolant. It is to note that in
actual case it is not a coolant as spent liquor is to be heated up. The shell side condensation calculation for
pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient calculation method will be following what have been proposing
for calculation in a typical condenser design which takes into consideration of condensing vapor outside
the tube while single phase flow calculation will be accounted for pressure drop and heat transfer
coefficient calculation in tube for spent liquor.
3. Heat duty (heat transfer rate) [3]
As the primary objective of the design is to work out heat transfer area required and the prerequisite of it is
to determine the heat transfer rate per unit time for vapor stream as equation follows:
Heat transferred from vapor
q=

= 13.17 (2738.87 542.74)

= 28923.03 kW
4. Overall heat transfer coefficient [3]
Overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat transfer and as the first
trial it is determined to be as 2000 W/m2oC. HATCH provided the value of overall heat transfer coefficient
to be 1200W/m2oC in partially scaled condition and high heat transfer coefficient is favorable as it is
proportional to heat transfer rate. Thus, it is assumed that in clean tube condition; the U o(ass) is
2000W/m2oC.
5. Mean temperature difference [3]
As temperature difference between both the process cold and hot stream change along with length of heat
exchanger, logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference LMTD (a form of driving force which is equivalent
to average temperature different) is used to determine the heat transfer rate. Counter current flow is used
in the tube and shell design as it provides greater LMTD than co-current flow. Thus, grater heat transfer
can be achieved under same surface area [1].
As the condensation range is small and the variation in saturation temperature will be linear, the
logarithmic mean temperature different is suitable for the design.

R=

( T 1T 2) 138.26129.16
=
=1.21
( t 2t 1) 110.8( 103.26 )

S=

( t 2t 1 ) 110.8( 103.26 )
=
=0.22
( T 1t 1) 138.26( 103.26 )

( R +1 ) ln
2

Ft =

( R1 ) ln

( 1S )
( 1RS )

2S [ R+1 ( R 2+1 ) ]
2S [ R+1+ ( R2 +1 ) ]

1.21 0.22
1()
( 10.22 )
( ]

2
( 1.21 +1 ) ln
Ft =
Then the logarithmic mean temperature can be calculated:

T
T
T
( 1t 2)
( 2t 1)
ln

1t
(
2)(T 2t 1)

T lm =
T lm =

( 138.26110.8 )(129.16103.26)
=26.67
( 138.26110.8 )
ln
(129.16103.26)

By first guessing two tube passes for a horizontal heat exchanger, condensation in one shell; true
temperature difference can then be determined through the value calculated above:

T m=F t T lm
T m=0.70 26.67=18.66

6. Heat transfer area [3]

The trial heat transfer area is calculated as follows:

Ao=

q
U o ,ass T m

28923.03 103
2
=775.04 m
2000 18.66

7. Selection of tube dimension [3]

The tube dimension is selected based on tube cleaning practices as minimum limit of the outer diameter is
approximately 20mm. By taking the tube dimension as 22.225 mm outer diameter with 19.736 mm inner
diameter as recommended by handbook the surface area of one tube is calculated as below [2]:
As = OD x

xL

= 22.225 x 3.142 x 7.32

= 0.51 m2
The tube length 7.32m is selected based on the criteria that high cost can be avoided with long tube used.
Moreover, the tube length is chosen with the consideration that length to shell diameter ratio must be in
the range of 5 to 10 for best performance.
8. Number of tubes [3]
Number of tubes is computed through the formula of
N=

Ao
As

775.04
0.51

= 1516.23

9. Tube Layout [3]

Triangular pitch is chosen as the configuration is compact and provides higher heat transfer. The formula
for tube pitch is as follows:
Pt = 1.25do
= 1.25x 22.225
= 27.78
With calculated number of tubes and selected tube OD, shell bundle diameter can easily be found through
equation of,
http://www.hcheattransfer.com/shell_and_tube.html

N
Db=d o t
K1

( )

1
n1

= 22.225

1516.23
0.249

1
2.207

=1152.50 mm

Where the constant K1 and N1 are determined from table 12.4 in [3], with the configuration of 2 tube
passes and triangular pitch selected.
Number of tube in centre row which is also the row at the shell equator is calculated by:
Nr =

Db
Pt =

1152.50
27.78

= 41.48

10. Shell-Side Coefficient [3]

As vapor is condensing outside the wall of tube, hence tube wall temperature, T w is required to be
determined through mean temperature at the shell side and tube side. By assuming condensing coefficient
of 1500 W/m2oC at the shell side, the equations for mean temperature and wall temperature are given by:
Mean temperature

Shell side =

T
( 1+T 2)
2

Tube side =

t
( 1+t 2)
2

138.26129.16

=
=133.71
2

(110.8+103.26)
2

= 107.03

Tube Wall Temperature

(TMS Tw) x

= (T T ) x U
MS
MT
o

(133.71 Tw) x 1500 = (133.71 107.03) x 2000

Tw = 98.14 oC

Mean Temperature Condensate =

133.71+98.14
2

= 115.93oC

Physical properties at 115.93 oC for condensate

L = 0.000241 Ns/m2

L = 946.48 kg/m3

Vapor density at mean vapor temperature

v =

PM
2.64 x 18.016
=
RT 8.314 E2 x (133.71+273) = 1.425 kg/m3

k L = 0.68 W/mK

h=

Wc
ln t

13.17
7.32 x 1516.23

= 0.0012 kg/sm

Average number of tube in vertical tube row, typically

Nrv =

2
3

x Nr =

2
3

2
3

of the number in the central row is used:

x 41.48 = 27.65

11. Mean coefficient for a tube bundle [3]

The equation below accounts for condensation of vapor on the outer horizontal tube and as well as flow of
condensate from row to row over the Nr tubes in a vertical row. Moreover, it also taking into consideration
of the obstacle flow of condensate around the tube as condensate is impossible to flow smoothly from row
to row of tubes in reality.

L ( L v ) g
(hc)b = 0.95kL (

= 0.95 x 0.68 (

L h

)1/3

6
N1/
rv

946.48 ( 946.481.425 ) 9.81

)1/3 x 27.65-1/6
0.000241 x 0.0012

= 11677.47W/m2oC
The calculated condensing coefficient 11677.47 W/m2oC is far apart from the assumed value of 1500
W/m2oC, hence correction to Tw is needed and iteration is required to be carried out.
Table 2 provided the summary of iteration and converged value of condensing coefficient.
Table 2 Iteration summary of condensing coefficient
Parameters
Base case
1st Iteration
Shell side mean
133.71
133.71
o
temperature ( C)
Tube side mean
107.03
107.03
o
temperature ( C)
Tube wall
98.14
129.14
o
temperature, Tw ( C)
Condensate mean
115.92
131.43
o
temperature ( C)
Mean condensing
1500.00
12055.92
coefficient for tube
bundle, (hc)b
(W/m2oC)

2st Iteration
133.71
107.03
129.28
131.50
12055.92
(converged)

12. Tube side coefficient [3]

Tube cross sectional area, TCSA =

D2
4

N
of passes

(19.736)2 x
4

1516.23
2

= 0.23 m2

Density of spent liquor at 107.03oC = 1247.28 kg/m3

( SL)(T CSA )
Tube velocity =
mSL

1049.54
1247.28 x 0.23

= 3.63 m/s
Prandtle number which define ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity and Reynolds numbers
that determine type of fluids flow inside the tubes are given by:
Pr =

Cp
k

Re =

v d i

3.66 E x 0.00049
0.1898

3.63 x 1247.28 x 1 9.736 E3

0.00049

= 9.45

= 182248.40

As the calculated Re>2100 and it showed the characteristic of turbulent flow, the heat transfer coefficient
at the tube side can be determined by:

k f 0.8 0.33
d i 0.7
0.1898
19.736 E3 0.7
0.8
0.33
182248.4
9.45
(1+
)

Pr
(1+
)
hi = 0.023 d
=0.023 1 9.736 E3
=
7.34
L
i
7516.06 w/moC
13. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient [3]
Nickel alloy 400 is selected as the tube material and with a conductivity of, kw of 24. 54 W/m2C and
fouling coefficient of steam condensate and aqueous salt solution are assumed to be 5000W/m2 oC
respectively 0 which is at the maximum of the range of fouling factor coefficient 5000W/m2 oC
respectively so as to maximize the Uo; the overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the equation of

1
1
1

U o ho hod

1
1
1
=
+
+
U o 1205592 5000

22.225 ln

d o ln

do
di

2k w

do 1 do 1

d1 hid d i hi

( 22.225
19.736 ) 22.225
+

2 24.54

U o=1404.92

19.736

1
22.225
1
+

5000 19.736 7516.06

W
m .
2

The overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated as

1404.92 W/m2C which is far from the estimated

Uo of 2000 W/m2C. Iterations have to be conducted to get the converged U o value. Table below provided
the summary of iterated data with the use of 1404.92 W/m 2oC as the trial coefficient for repeated steps
calculations.
Table 3: Iteration process for converging overall heat transfer coefficient
Parameters
Base Case
1st Iteration
Uo(ass)
2000
1404.92
Area
775.04
1103.32
Tube velocity
3.63
2.55
Bundle diameter
1.15
1.35
Shell side coefficient
12055.92
13562.05
Tube side coefficient
7516.06
5666.16
Overall
heat 1404.92
1369.57
coefficient, Uo

2st Iteration
1369.57
1131.80
1.79
1.37
13677.76
5666.16
1369.57

14. Shell side pressure drop [3]

As floating head split ring is employed, the clearance for the diameter bundle of 1.37m as provided from
the figure 12.10 in [3] is 69mm. Baffle spacing for condenser has to be minimum of 35% of shell diameter
to prevent excessive bypassing and leakage. Thus, 42% of the baffle spacing is selected to provide high

heat transfer rate and achieve reasonable high pressure drop across the shell of the heat exchanger as
required by SYSCAD. As the design is with total condensation assumption, cross flow design of shell is
vital to be used. It has a partially filled shell with space above the bundle to distribute the vapors along the
entire length. Hence, cross flow area is important to be considered and can be calculated with equation of

As=

( p td o ) D s l B
pt

(27.7822.225) 1435.07 602.73

A s=

The shell side mass velocity

G s=

Ws
As

G s=

13.17
kg
=76.13
0.17
s m2

Gs can be calculated as follows:

d e is computed by using the equation for triangle pitch arrangement:

The equivalent diameter

d e=

1.27 2
( P t 0.917 d o2 )
do

d e=

1.27
( 27.7820.917 22.2252 )=15.78 mm
22.225

With vapour viscosity of 0.0000135 Ns/m2 at mean vapor temperature (133.71oC), the shell side
Reynolds number can then be calculated:

Gsde

(76.13 15.78 E )
=
=88992.67
0.0000135
From the Figure 12.30 in [3] with Reynoldss number of 8.9 10
to be 0.029, then the linear velocity can be determined by:

, the friction factor,

jf

is obtain

us =

Gs
v

us =

76.13
=53.24 m/ s
1.43

The shell side pressure drop,

Ps =8 j f

Ps is determined by and viscosity factor is neglected:

2
L v u s
lB 2
w

Ds
de

0.14

( )( ) ( )

Ps =8 ( 0.029 )

525.35
19.75

)(

7.34
602.73
1000

)(

1.43 53.24
=518.93 kPa
2

As pressure drop on the condensing side is difficult to be predicted due to the existence of two phases
and vapor mass velocity is varying throughout the condenser. For total condensation, Kerns suggested
a factor of 50% of calculated pressure drop using inlet flow where it takes into account for the change
in vapor velocity using method of single phase flow.

Ps =518.93 0.5=259.46 kPa

15. Tube side pressure drop [3]

The viscosity of caustic soda at

107.3

is

0.00049 kg /ms , and the Reynolds number can be

calculated:

ut di

1247.28 1.8 19.736

=128434.32
0.00049

Friction factor,

jf

is obtain to be 0.0028 from table 12.24 (Sinnott 2003). By neglecting viscosity

correction, the tube side pressure drop can be calculated as:

[ ( )( ) ]

L
Pt =N p 8 j f
di

Pt =2 8 ( 0.0028 )

u t
+2.5
2

7.34
1247.28 1.82
+2.5
=43.61 kPa
19.736
2

Table 4 Design Outcome

Overall HX-102 design summary
Tube outer diameter, mm
Tube inner diameter, mm
Tube length, m
Tube velocity m/s
Shell velocity m/s
Triangular pitch, m
Shell Diameter, mm
Baffle spacing, mm
Baffle cut, %
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U, W/m2K
Pressure drop in tube, kPa
Pressure drop in shell, kPa

22.225
19.735
7.34
2.56
26.66
27.78
1435.07
602.73
42
1370.56
43.61
259.46

Comment: The overall design is satisfactory. This is because of reasonable tube side velocity which falls
in the range of 1-3m/s. Shell side average vapor velocity is 26.66m/s, which is reasonable as the shell side
vapor velocity fall in the range of 10 -30 m/s. The 26.6m/s is actually taking the mean velocity at inlet
vapor stream which is 56.24m/s and velocity at outlet condensate stream 0.08m/s The pressure drop in
shell is nearest to the value of 263.54kPa as shown in SYSCAD. The obtained shell side pressure is
particularly designed to be lower than the pressure stated in SYSCAD to ensure the vapor flow from high
pressure flash tank to low pressure without reverse flow. The pressure drop in tube side is also make sense
as usually in series of heat exchanger the HX-105 will have the highest tube side pressure drop (300kPa
from HATCH) and pump need to ensure the spent liquid have enough energy to flow towards all the 5 heat
exchangers. The pressure should be of from high to low. And the tube side pressure drop is valid with
43.61kpa < than 300 kPa.

3.0 Operational Design

3.1 Control System Design
Control system have the advantages of correcting the effects of disturbances in feed flow rate,
temperature, steam supply pressure and so on through various type of instrumentation control system. It
can be feed forward, feedback, cascade or inferential control. Figure 1 showed the P&ID diagram for heat
exchanger that would be sufficient in controlling the heat exchanger with the control system proposed.
Main control objective is to transfer energy from hot vapor stream to cold spent liquor stream. The type of
control proposed is cascade control loop. It consists of two controllers in series that working together in
order to correct the disturbances incurred. In the diagram, the cascade master temperature indicator
transmitter (TIT) detecting variation in temperature and the slave controller (PIT) will then detects the
variable that affect the process temperature which is pressure of the steam. The cascade master (TIC) will
then adjust the set point of slave controller (PIC) to attain the process system back to normal. It has the
advantages of accounting for disturbances in primary variable (temperature for spend liquor in the case)
quickly and effectively. In addition, the control system also helps to reduce the dead time and phase lag
time in the system which is good for more efficient control of the process flow in the heat exchanger. The
control system is important in the sense of too much or too less heat transfer from vapor might lead to the
target to achieve 110.8oC at the spent liquor outlet stream impossible. And this will upset the performance
of digestion of bauxite in digester if required temperature is not achieve or too high. High heat differential
transfer will lead to thermal expansion of the heat exchanger and as well as speed up the scaling of liquor
on the tube side of heat exchanger or tube rupture might be result. Thus, control system is imperative to be
installed in heat exchanger for best performance [11].
Table 5 Component of control system and its function in heat exchanger P&ID (figure 1)
No
1
Vapor Inlet S-021
Components
Function
Check valve V-10
To prevent reverse flow of vapor
Gate valve V-25
To bypass and act as a backup valve
Isolation valve V-3,V-2
To isolate V-01 for maintenance purposes
2

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger HX-102

Components
Function
Vent V-16
For maintenance purposes and to vent noncondensable air
Pressure safety valve V-69
Protection valve that prevent the tube rupture due to
extreme pressure fluctuation
Drain V-26
To drain condensate for maintenance purposes

Water (Condensate) Outlet S-041

Components
Isolation valve V-66, V-67
Gate valve V-68
Check valve V-42

Function
To isolate V-65 for maintenance purposes
To bypass and act as a backup valve
To prevent reverse flow of water

Flanged valve with spectacle blind

V-65

To stop/ block the fluid from flowing into heat

exchanger or flowing out

Spent Liquor Inlet S-040

Components
Isolation valve V-38, V-39
Gate valves V-40
Check valve V-34
Flanged valve with spectacle blind
V-35
Drain valve V-37

Function
To isolate V-01 for maintenance purposes
To bypass and act as a backup valve
To prevent reverse flow of liquor
To stop/ block the fluid flow into heat exchanger or
flowing out
To drain spent liquor for maintenance purposes

Spent Liquor Outlet S-042

Components
Flanged valve with spectacle blind
V-72
Gate valve V-75
Isolation valve V-73, V-74
Check valve V-62
Drain valve V-61

Function
To stop/ block the fluid from flowing into heat
exchanger or flowing out
To bypass and act as a backup valve
To isolate V-72 for maintenance purposes
To prevent reverse flow of spent liquor
To drain spent liquor for maintenance purposes

Control System
Components
Temperature indicator controller
TIC
Temperature indicator transmitter
TIT
Pressure indicator controller PIC
Pressure indicator transmitter PIT
High pressure alarm H
Low pressure alarm L

Function
Receive signal from TIT which first compare the
variation of set point and perform action on PIC
Detect temperature variation from set point and send
signal to TIC
Perform action on control valve to adjust the pressure
of vapor
Detect variation of pressure from set point and
transmit signal to PIC
To notify when pressure is high
To notify when pressure is low

Figure 1 P&ID diagram for shell and tube heat exchanger

3.2 Operating Procedures

Commissioning [9]
Before commencing a heat exchanger into operation, it is advisable that reference should be made to the
heat exchanger specification sheet, drawing and as well as name plate for any special instructions. This is
to ensure the heat exchanger will never be operated under condition that exceeds those specified on the
specification sheet for safety purposes. Moreover, local safety health and regulations should be
considered. Incorrect way of startup or shutdown steps would cause leaking of bolted flanged joints and
tube to tube sheet joint.
Start up operation [9]
The process fluids must be introduced into the shell and tube heat exchanger in a way that minimized the
differential thermal expansion between the shell and tubes. Cold process stream should first be flowing
into heat exchanger and only followed by gradual introduction of hotter medium like vapor. During the
start up, the vent valves should be unlock and left opened until all the passages have been purged of air
and completely filled with fluid.
Shutdown operation [9]
Gradually stopping the flow of hotter medium then only followed by colder medium in the equipment.
The aim for gradual shut down is to minimized differential thermal expansion between the shell and
tubes. After completely shut down, all components of the equipment and as well as pipeline should be
drained completely in order to prevent the freezing or corrosion from happening in the equipment. Water
hammer is unfavorable in pipeline as it will incur multiphase flow and it is advisable that condensate be
drained from the heater during start up or shut down. Tube side of exchanger can be blown out with air ti
reduce water retention in the equipment.
Maintenance [9]
For daily checking procedure, it is vital to check for any process fluid leaks in the sealed area of the heat
exchanger.
Periodical maintenance [9]
Keep eyes on corrosion or fouling in the pipeline or heat exchanger by performing periodic cleaning to
the equipment. Check for visible cracks, for any of the equipments component, integrity of liners and etc.
Disassembly [9]
All pipings must be sealed/ disconnected prior to disassembly.
Check for internal pressure of the heat exchanger after the hydraulic pump is halt for operation and make
sure the pressure is zero before disassembling the heat exchanger,

It is also vital for users to check that the equipment is fully depressurized, vented, drained, neutralized or
drained before disassemble the heat exchanger.
Keep all the log books that record down the event or operation malfunction which affect the heat
exchanger performance. This is to ensure no repeatable mistake in operation in the future.

Environmental accident response procedure

The most corrosive fluid in heat exchanger is caustic soda and immediate action should be taken if
leakages are found. As the caustic soda is highly corrosive in nature, it would bring harm to human and
environment if cares is not taken immediately.
Table 6 Slurry spill accident respond [8]
Category
Size
Small

up to 300cc

Medium

300 cc - 5 liters

Response
Absorption or chemical
treatment

Treatment Materials
Caustic neutralizer
or absorption material
like sand or socks
Absorption materials

Absorption
Public safety must be
Large
more than 5 liters
outside help
called
1.1. Determine the size of spill/ leakage and take appropriate action according to the table proposed
below.
1.2. Contain and clean up the leaks with the chemical used.
Emergency shutdown procedure [9]
For safety control, pressure relief valve and emergency shutdown valve are being installed into the
equipment. If pressure in the heat exchanger went abnormal, the set pressure in the pressure relief valve
will be activated and hence relieving the emergency situation. However, if PRV malfunction, emergency
shutdown valve will be activated when it detects 20% extra high temperature in the stream and alarm will
ring and fluid flow will be shut down immediately.

3.3 HAZID STUDY (S&T HEAT EXCHANGER)

Table 7 S&T Heat exchanger hazid study

HAZARD
ID

HAZARD CATEGORY
(GUIDEWORD)

Natural Disasters

HAZARD
DESCRIPTION /
HAZARDOUS
EVENT

Extreme heat

CONSEQUENCES

Pressure build up in
HX-102
Heat stress of
personnel

PREVENTION /
DETECTION / BARRIES

Shut down operation

RISK ASSESSMENT
LIKELIHOOD CONSEQUENCE
SEVERITY

Possible

Low

RECOMMENDATIONS
RANKING

Low

Evacuate personnel from

extreme heat

Monitor the operating

temperature of HX-102
Install high temperature alarm
on HX-102

Pipeline an equipment
thermal expansion
HX-102 operate
higher than operating
temperature of 80C
2

External Effects

Dropped objects

Damage of HX-102
Possible rupture of
HX-102, thus release
of corrosive caustic

Inspect regularly for

overhead equipment and
possible loose items.

Unlikely

Critical

Extreme

External Effects

Fatigue/ cracking

Rupture of pipeline

N/A

Unlikely

Major

High

Loss of containment
Cracking of HX-102
shell

Human Factors

Improper/
inadequate training

Loss of alumina
production
Loss of production
Process upset and
abnormal operating
condition

Ensure rigging is in good

condition and operated
correctly
Installation of safety netting
above HX-102

Injury or death of the

workers

Wearing protective hard hat

and as well as personal
protective equipments
Perform non destructive
testing (NDT) on vessel to
test vessel thickness and
pipeline integrity
Visual inspection of any
hairline crack on the
equipment.

N/A

Possible

Critical

ACTIONS

Extreme

Provide adequate training for

operators
Compulsory in preparing
operating procedure manual
by designers and the

Operators to do
temperature
monitoring
Electrical
engineering team
to install alarms
Operators to
inspect the
equipment and
pipeline
condition.
Offshore health
and safety
executive to
handle all the
safety requirement
rule and
regulations.

Maintenance
engineering team
to perform the
testing and fix
broken pipeline or
equipment
leakage.

Designers/
consultants to
provide the
training.
Operators to obey

Damage to equipment
which might include
HX-102

Equipment/Instrumentation
Malfunction

Control valve V-01

failure

Explosion
No heat exchange
(fail to open)

N/A

Unlikely

Major

High

HX-102 over
pressurized (fail to
close)

Process Upsets

Process Upsets

Flow deviation

Pressure deviation

Loss of containment
(fail to close)
Increase in
temperature in HX102
Insufficient
temperature to digest
bauxite ore
HX-102 over
pressurized and
rupture

procedure have to be strictly

obeyed

the rule and

regulations from
the operating
manual

Install bypass valve to the

control valve

Process
engineering team
to design and
maintenance team
to install bypass
and isolation
valves

Install isolation valves around

valve V-01 for maintenance of
broken V-01

N/A

Relief valve

Likely

Moderate

High

Installation of flow control

system at the outlet stream of
spent liquor

Process
engineering team
to design and
electrician to
install the control
system

Possible

Critical

Extreme

Installation of emergency
shutdown valve and high
temperature alarm.

Electrical
engineering team
to install
emergency
shutdown valve
connected to high
temperature alarm
and display at the
indicator

Likely

Major

Extreme

Visual inspection on the

pipeline for any possible
defects.

Operators to
perform the
checking
periodically.

Cascade controller system

loop

Loss of containment
Vent line V-16
Upsets to downstream
equipment

Process Upsets

Corrosion/ erosion

Personal injury or
death
Cracking and leakage
of HX-102 and as well
as inlet and outlet
pipelines S021, S040,
S041, S042

Nickel alloy steel materials

for all the pipelines and tube
side of HX-102

Frequent non destructive test

for pipeline and vessel wall
thickness

Cracking of vessel or
pipeline
9

Utilities Failures

Loss of power

Loss of functionality
of cascade control
systems
Pressure build up in
HX-102

Fail open/closed valves

Unlikely

Moderate

Moderate

Backup generator for

important process equipment

Maintenance
engineering team
to perform the
testing.
Electrical
engineering team
to install backup
generator

Loss of alumina
production

4.0 Mechanical Engineering Design

The mechanical design of shell and tube heat exchanger will be carried out based on process design data
obtained. Shell side of heat exchanger will be designed as thin walled pressure vessel under the exertions
of internal pressure. With the determined information given in table 4 summary of designed mechanical
components are listed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Pressure vessel arrangement and type of domed head and end closure.
Wall thickness required for cylindrical vessel, shell cover, channel covers and tubesheet thickness
Dead weight of vessel
Elastic stability check
Flanges
Nozzles
Gaskets
Stress calculations
Saddle support

Process and mechanical design information

Shell and tube side passes: 1 shell 2 tube passes
Tubes number, layout size and type: 2206.54; tube length: 7.34m; tube OD: 22.225mm; ID: 19.736mm;
equilateral triangular pitch; floating tube sheet
Shell diameter and head: Shell ID: 1435.07mm; torispherical head and carbon steel for shell and head.
Corrosion allowance: 3mm of corrosion allowance is taken for carbon steel
Design temperature and pressure: For safety design purposes, 10% extra of the design value will be taken
into account. For temperature, the highest process fluid temperature is selected while highest inlet
pressure among both the inlet stream is chosen. Design temperature: 1.1 x 138.26 = 47.97 oC; pressure:
43.61 x 1.1 = 47.97kPa
Permissible stress: 114.58 N/mm2 for carbon steel
Shell diameter and thickness [3]
Cylindrical shell is chosen as the shape for the heat exchanger and the minimum shell thickness can be
calculated from the formula below which based in the maximum allowable stress and corrected joint
efficiency:

t s=

p Ds
+ c = 3.71mm
fj0.6 p

The joint efficiency is taken as 0.85 with spot radiography and double welded butt joint. The low joint
factor will give reasonably low cost and as well as compromise with thicker and heavier the vessel it will
result.

The minimum thickness for the cylindrical shell before the corrosion allowance is 3.41mm and the
resulting thickness after the corrosion allowance is 3.71mm.
Arrangement of pressure vessel and type of domed head and end closure [12]
As determined from the chart in .the design of heater is favorable of horizontal oriented pressure
vessels. Torispherical head is chosen due to its common usage in chemical industries and suitable for high
operating pressure which up to 200 psi.

Figure 2 Torrispherical head [10]

The minimum thickness of a torrispherical head (th) can be determined by:

th =

P Ri W
2 fJ0.2 P

+c

= 3.54mm

1
4

W=

(3 +

Ri
ri

= 1.54
The channel cover thickness is calculated from the formula of

t cc =

D C C 1 P
10 f

= 4.71mm
Vessel Dead Weight Load [12]
With carbon steel cylindrical vessel and doomed ends, the estimated vessel weight is
WV = 240CVDm(HV+0.8Dm)t

=11.74kN
Weight of tube plates:

( Di )2= 1.62 m2
4

Plate area =

Weight of a plate = 1.2 X plate area = 1.2 x 1.62 = 1.94 kN

No. of tube plates = 1
Weight of total number of plates = 1.94 kN
Tube sheet thickness [12]
Tube sheet is fixed with shell and channel to form barrier for the process fluids in shell and tube side. It is
a circular flat plate with drilled holes in regular pattern which might varies for every tube sheet layouts.
Open end of tubes are connected to the tube sheet and usually the tube sheets are attached by welding or
bolting or combination of both.
The minimum tube sheet thickness which according to TEMA standard to resist bending is calculated
through:

t ts =

FG p P
3
kf

= 14.17mm
Where F is taken as 1 for floating type tube sheet and mean ligament efficiency k is computed by

k=1

0.907
2
PT
( )
do

=0.43
Impingement plates requirement [12]
It is usually installed on the tube side of a bundle which serves to slow down and disperse the fluid as it
enters the exchanger. It helps in prolongs the lifespan of the tubes and as well as the bundle.
The requirement for the installation of impingement plate is given by:

<125

Where

= 4041.19

is the density of caustic soda while

is the tube velocity

The calculated value is 4041.19, which is greater than 125. Impingement plate is required and the
thickness will be 6mm according to usual standard.
Nozzles size [12]
From [12], with shell ID > than 1 m it is recommended to have nozzle ID of 0.254 m
Gaskets [12]
Gasket is designed in the way to make the metal to metal surfaces leak proof. The deformation of gaskets
under load seals the surface irregularities between metal to metal surfaces which prevents leakage of the
fluid.
To prevent the leakage of the internal fluid, the residual gasket force must be larger than calculated force
or required. The equation is presented below for the scenario mentioned:

DOG
D IG

Y pm
Y p (m+ 1)

= 1.0065
Where DIG = Ds + 0.25
The gasket factor m is taken as 3 for corrugated metal with asbestos fill from the table of stated in [12]
due to its ability to withstand in high temperature whereas Y is stated to be 3.87 for maximum design
seating stress with the reference of gasket factor. From the calculated value of

DOG
= 1.0065 and
D IG

DIG of 1.432m the gasket width can then be determined with formula of
Gasket width, N =

( D OGD IG )
2

= 4.66mm
Take 10 mm as the design for standard width
Bolt design [12]
The minimum initial bolt load at atmospheric pressure and temperature is given by
Wm1 =

bGY =192043.3 N

The gasket is compressed under tight pressure and the required bolt load W m2 is given by

2
G p = 79590.09N
4

Wm2 = H + Hp = 2 bGmp +

( D OG + D IG )
2

Where G = mean gasket diameter,

Basic gasket seating width bo =

N
2

= 1.44m

for flat flange, thus b0 = 10mm

As calculated Wm1 is greater than Wm2

Minimum bolt cross sectional area Am =

Wm 1
fa

= 21290.19 mm2

M16 nominal thread diameter with bolt circle diameter (C b) of 1470mm, 56 bolts and 22mm Dbr
Are selected from https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S08/is.4864-4870.1968.pdf
Minimum gasket width, Nmin =

Ab f b
2 YG

= 1.00693

Flange [12]
For gasket seating condition (no internal load applied)

( A m + A b) f a
2

W=

Mf =

= 358786.24N

W (CbG)
2

= 5384521 Nmm

Flange force calculation (For operating condition)

2

Hydrostatic end force for the inside area of flange, H D =

Where B = outside shell diameter = 1435.07mm
hD =

(CbB)
2

= 17.465 mm

Moment due to HD, MD = HDhD = 1355313 Nmm

B
4

= 77601.68N

Gasket seating condition, HG = W H = 280652.1 N

Taking W = Wm2
Moment due to HG, MG = HGhG = 1455.959N
hG =

(CbG)
2

= 15.0076 mm

MG = HGhG = 21850.45 Nmm

Pressure force on the flange face, H T = H - HD = 532.45N
hT =

(( hD + hG ))/2 = 16.24mm

MT = HThT = 8644.978 Nmm

Summation moments under operating condition, Mf = MD + MT +MG = 8644.98 Nmm
From the calculated value of 8644.98 Nmm it showed that

Mf

is the controlling moment as it is

greater than Mf.

Flange thickness [12]

Tf =

K=

A
B

M of Y
f faB

= 55.14mm

from graph; A is 1515 from chosen bolt while B= diameter of shell; hence K = 1.06mm

; Y = 1.06

Saddle support [3]

Horizontal heat exchanger is usually supported by at least two supporting saddle supports and assuming
that the heat exchangers is uniformly laded, approximately 21 percent of the length of vessel will be
placed at each end.
From the chart given in Figure 13.26 in [3], the dimension of the vessel is recommended according to the
design is given as below:
Table 8 Standard skirt dimension
Vessel Dia.
Max. Weight

Dimensions (m)

m
1.2

kN
180

V
0.78

Y
0.20

C
1.09
J
0.36

E
0.45
G
0.14

mm
t2
t1
Bolt dia.
Bolt holes.
12
10
34
30
Although original design case is 1.45m, it is assumed that the support dimension can support the overall
weight as extra details design is needed due to the reason that the data given by handbook is just limited
to 12m. Moreover, the calculated weight is approximately 14 kN which is far way enough to support from
the dimension above. The dimension data extracted from handbook is assumed to be applicable to heat
exchanger design as more complex calculation is needed in order to work out the accurate data.

4.1 Mechanical Drawing

Figure 3 Mechanical
design of heat exchanger

HE-101 Heat
Exchanger
Specification
Sheet

Equipment No.

Functional Description
Type of Heat Exchanger
Orientation
Operation
Shell Side Fluid
Tube Side Fluid
Total Heat Duty
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Heat Transfer Area

Fluid
Mass Flow Rate
Composition

Temperature
Pressure (as in SYSCAD)
Density
Heat Capacity
Thermal Conductivity
Viscosity
Shell Inner Diameter
No. of Passes
No. of Baffles
Bundled Diameter
Total No. of Tubes
No. of Tubes per Pass
Tube Outer Diameter
Tube Inner Diameter
Tube Length
Pitch Diameter
Pressure Drop
Material of Construction
Prepared by
Checked by

HX-102

Sheet No.
1
General Data
To transfer heat from vapor in order to heat up spent liquor
Shell and tube, floating head type
Horizontal
Continuous
Vapor
Spent liquor
Operating Data
28923.03 kW
1369.57 W/m2C
1131.80 m2
Performance of one Unit
Shell Side
Tube Side
Vapor
Spent liquor
13.17
1049.54
kg/s
H2O (v)
1.00 H2O
0.8886
Total NaOH
0.0691 Mol fraction
Other Comp.
0.0423
Inlet
Outlet
Inlet
Outlet
138.26
129.16
103.26
110.80 degC
263.54
101.325
kPa
1.43
1247.28
kg/m3
2.17
3.65
kJ/kg.degC
0.68
0.1898
W/m.degC
0.0000135
0.00049
kg/ms
Construction of one Shell
1435.07 mm
2 (Type F, TEMA Standards)
3
1.37 m
2206
2
22.225 mm
19.736 mm
7.34 mm
27.78 mm
(Triangular Pitch Arrangement)
Shell Side
Tube Side
259.46
43.61
kPa
Carbon Steel
Nickel alloy 400
Kelvin Tan Khai Yik
Vincent Tan Kok Yew

Date: 7/11/2014
Date: 7/11/2014

Table 9 Heat exchanger specification sheet (Critical review of heat exchanger is provided at
part B of the report in section 5.0 which is combined together with flash tank due to space limit)

Part B
1.0 Introduction (Flash Vessel)
In alumina refinery plant, flash train vessels are commonly used equipments in digestion facility which
aims to let down the pressure of the digester discharge slurry stream (S-019) into atmospheric pressure by
mean to flash cool the slurry and to make the slurry concentrated. The high pressure slurry enters the low
pressure flash tank FT-101 leads to the formation of liquid slurry and steam. In the flashing process,
slurry will be cooled down through the evaporation of steam while the heat from the steam will be used in
HX-102 for heating up the spent liquor. The flash tank design in the report is aimed to work out the
required dimension of vessel in term of height and diameter to handle the amount of slurry feed to the
vessel, position of the slurry entry nozzle, vapor outlet nozzle and as well as vessel arrangement.
However, the constraint for the design is to ensure minimum slurry carry over with the outgoing vapor,
sufficient hydraulic head for the transportation of fluid from tank to tank which need to compromise with
the costing of elevation construction and wind loading. Sufficient hydraulic head to transport the slurry
from tank to tank through the interconnecting flash piping is not enough as the pressure drop in pipeline
might induce multiphase flow which will lead to erosion and pipeline wear [5].

1.1 Scope of work

Process sizing of flash tank, operational design and as well as mechanical design are presented in the
report.

2.0 Process Design

The flash tank FT-101 is to flash cool incoming slurry from temperature of 145 oC to 138.26oC. The
operating condition in the flash tank is 263.54kPa.

2.1 Design methodology

To ensure proper sizing and high performance of flash tank the design methodology is proposed as
follows:
1
2
3
4
5

Determination of terminal velocity and buoyancy

Work out the condensate quality factor
Conductivity of caustic calculation
Diameter and height of flash vessel
Preferred flash vessel tank orientation and inlet outlet entry

2.2 Basic Design Data

Parameter
Mass flowrate (kg/s)
Pressure (kPa)
Density (kg/m3)
Temperature (oC)
Vapor Fraction
Liquid Fraction
Solid Fraction
Heat Duty (kJ/h)
Power (kW)

S019
1212.15
303.90
1212.5
145
0
0.96
0.04
3.76E10
-10439463.86

S020
1198.98
263.54
1277.78
138.26
0
0.96
0.04
3.7E10
-10265181.79

S021
13.17
263.54
1.42
138.26
1
0
0
6.3E8
-174282.07

Comment: The percentage of slurry flashes to vapor is 1.09% with the output of 13.17 kg/s of vapor at
S021. Moreover, it can be seen from the stream table that the temperature of S019 is being reduced by
4.64% due to the thermal energy release with the vaporization of vapor. Thus, the process sizing of flash
vessel have to take into the considerations that the objective of at least 4.64% temperature reduction, flow
rate of slurry and vapor at the outlet and inlet can be achieved with the dimension and operating condition
of flash tank designed.

2.3 Process design calculation

Flash tank sizing [HATCH]
The buoyancy is taken into consideration of liquid buoyancy force that exert upward onto the vapor
droplet. Hence, in order for vapor to flash, the vapor must have buoyancy force greater than gravitational
force. The buoyancy equation is determined as follows:
Buoyancy =

L V
V

1277.781.42
1.42

= 898.85

For vapor to flash without carrying over the liquid droplet, it is vital to calculate terminal velocity of
vapor. The terminal velocity is the force balance on the liquid droplet and when the scenario of net gravity
force balance the drag force happens, the heavier liquid will settle at constant terminal velocity. Thus, it is
important to ensure that velocity of vapor is less than the terminal velocity to minimize the carryover of
liquid by vapor and for the ease of heavier liquid settle out at the bottom of tank. The equation for
terminal velocity is calculated by:
Terminal velocity

Ut =

Wa
2
D
v
4

= 0.7

It is given by HATCH as the guideline that the terminal velocity is 0.7.

Condensate quality factor is to determine the purity of vapor flashed at the vapor outlet. It is vital to
ensure that the vapor does not contaminate with slurry droplet as liquid carry over by vapor will reduce
the heat exchanger performance at downstream and damage the equipment at shell side (prone to corrode
due to alkaline medium). The equation is determine by:
Condensate Quality Factor
k=

u
B

0.7
898.85 = 0.023

The equation below presented the conductivity of caustic in the flash vessel. It is a vapor purity parameter
to consider as high caustic content (characterize b high conductivity) will pose high chances in
contaminating the vapor stream. The caustic concentration is obtained by SYSCAD with the value of 170
kg/m3.
Target Conductivity

Ck
a

45 x 170 x 0.023
1.42

= 147.65

s/cm

The calculated 147.65 target conductivity is reasonable and showing the calculation is on the right track.
This is because HATCH suggested the target conductivity value of < 200 s/cm .
Diameter
With the determination of target conductivity and caustic concentration in flash tank, mass flow rate of
vapor, the diameter of the flash vessel is then calculated by equation as follows:

D=

4
c
1
Wa

a L a

4
45 x 170
1
13.17

147.65 1.42 1277.781.42 = 4.14 m

Height
The determined diameter 4.14m is then substitute into equation below to determine the total height of
flash tank.

H
D
V vap

= 2.5

H = 2.5 x 4.14 x 0.7 = 7.25 m

Height of slurry pool is 20% of total height of vessel

= 0.2x 7.25
=1.45m

3.0 Operational Design

3.1 Control System
The flash tank control system is basically made up of two control system. Pressure controller system will
detect variation in vessel pressure and make adjustment to the valve to pressure relief it. For level control
system, level indicator controller will detect variation in level and make adjustment to the control valve
V-02. Low level alarm will ring when the level in the vessel is too low, action will be performed on V-11
to close the valve in order to wait for slurry build up in flash tank. Pressure relief valve is installed at the
top of tank in case of emergency. Drainage valve V-15, V-13 and V-16 are provided for maintenance
purposes. Isolation valves are installed on inlet and outlet stream of line to bypass the slurry when the
control valve is malfunction. Refer to the diagram below for the control system.

Figure 4 Piping and Instrumentation diagram for flash tank

3.2 Operating procedure

3.2.1 Commissioning
Commissioning procedure is important to be conducted prior starting up equipment for safety and quality
assurance. The usual procedure for commissioning is carried as follows:
Operational check out list procedure [6]
1. Locate all the instrumentation according to PID in the plant.
2. Check the control valve, globe valve, drain valves, vent or relief valve to ensure they are installed
properly
3. Review of all piping connection for any steam tracing or any deposit.
4. Check for the bypass line installation around the pipeline of the equipment to ensure it is already been
installed.

Hydrostatic test [7]

1. It is carried out on the flash tank to prove the strength of the materials and weld integrity after
construction had been completed.
2. Locate the pressure within a sealed vessel.
3. Fill the vessel with incompressible fluid like water
4. Subject the pressure to a known internal pressure which is typically 150% than the maximum
operating pressure for 2 hours; the large internal pressure applied will cause the expansion of the
vessel.
5. Read the instrumentation that attached to the pressure to determine the total and permanent expansion
that the test chamber (external) undergoes.
6. Carry out physical and visual inspection to determine the condition of the vessel being tested.
7. If the vessel did not pose any damage or being permanent distorted due to test pressure, then the
equipment can proceed to start up procedure.
Start up
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Ensure the flash vessel is totally empty and free of any foreign objects.
Flush the unwanted material in the vessel using slurry and drain the wastes via drain valve if the
vessel is not empty
Ensure the vessel is connected to all the utilities and check for any possible loosen pipe connection
to the vessel to prevent leakage of slurry.
Ensure the temperature, pressure and level sensors attached to the vessel functioning properly.
Run the utilities and ensure the operating condition like pressure and slurry pool level in vessel is
achieved through the control system
Monitor the flash vessel for about 30 minutes to check for any unusual activities.
If everything is under good operating condition, feed the slurry into the flash column; otherwise
check for any issue that limit the desired operating condition from being achieving.

Shut down
1If the operation is to be shut down, it is recommended to close the feed valve to stop feeding the vessel.
2Turn off all the operating switches.
3Drain off the slurry from the flash vessel and vent off the possible vapor build in the vessel.
4Ensure the vessel is totally empty.
5Slowly depressurizing the vessel to atmospheric pressure by turning on the relief valve.
6Shut down all utilities connection.
7Allows the vessel to be cooled down to room temperature.
8Check for any possible equipment damage or leakages.
9Inform the maintenance team for any possible damage to the equipment.
Operating procedure
1. Control the flow meter so that 1212.15 kg/s is achieved in the feed stream.
2. Ensure the slurry level in flash tank is always maintained at the required level and as well the pressure
in vessel is constant at 263.54 kPa.

3. Ensure the slurry inlet temperature to flash tank is of 145 oC to ensure optimum flashing of vapor
under desired operating pressure in flash tank as temperature will change the VLE equilibrium of
flash pressure.
4. Carry out close monitoring to the flash vessel operating condition and check for any unusual activity.
5. Perform emergency shutdown procedure if serious problem arise to the operating vessel and hard to
solve it.
Emergency shut down
In an event of emergency shutdown, recognized the vessel alarms and acted upon.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Take immediate action if excessive temperature, pressure or low liquid level is observed.
Stop the feeding of slurry into the vessel.
Open the drain and vent valves to release the caustic liquid and as well as depressurizing.
No entry or work should be done on the flash vessel before the vessel is free of slurry and
depressurized.

Maintenance and cleaning measure

As routine maintenance or cleaning to flash vessel is required to ensure smooth operation of process flow,
it is recommended that the following requirements listed below achieved before any maintenance work
carried out:
1. Isolate electrical power and mechanical drives.
2. Source of heat and corrosive caustic soda isolated.
3. Preliminary check up for the condition of pipeline, equipments itself for any hairline crack or any
unfavorable dangerous event.
4. Record the performance of the flash tank before and after the maintenance work has been done.
5. Check for fouling in flash tank and as well as piping connection.
6. Readjust the control system of the flash tank to favor shut down.
7. Check for the safe guard system and ensure it function properly and ready to function in emergency
situation.
Environmental accident response procedure
Leakage of corrosive alkaline slurry from flash vessel or pipeline is hazardous to environment. Whenever,
a spill or leakage is found:
1. It is advisable that the workers wear protective personnel equipment to protect themselves from
the liquid.
2. Check for the size of the leak and perform clean up action as according to Table 6.
3. Immediate action carried out by maintenance team to fix the broken pipeline or equipment.
4. Isolate the flow of slurry into the affected pipeline or equipment.
5. Adjust control system to reduce or stop the operating equipment.
6. Install pressure gauge on pipeline to detect any leakage through fluctuation of pressure.

3.3 Safety Study (HAZID)

HAZARD
ID

HAZARD CATEGORY
(GUIDEWORD)

Natural Disasters

HAZARD
DESCRIPTION /
HAZARDOUS
EVENT

Extreme heat

CONSEQUENCES

Pressure build up in
FT-101
Heat stress of
personnel

PREVENTION /
DETECTION / BARRIES

Shut down operation

RISK ASSESSMENT
LIKELIHOOD CONSEQUENCE
SEVERITY

Possible

Low

External Effects

Dropped objects

Possible rupture of
FT-101, thus release
of corrosive caustic

Low

Evacuate personnel from

extreme heat

External Effects

Fatigue/ cracking

Rupture of pipeline

Inspect regularly for

overhead equipment and
possible loose items.

Unlikely

Critical

Extreme

N/A

Unlikely

Major

High

Cracking of FT-101
shell

Human Factors

Improper/
inadequate training

Process upset and

abnormal operating
condition

Operators to do
temperature
monitoring

Install high temperature alarm

on and pressure alarm on FT101

Electrical
engineering team
to install alarms

Ensure rigging is in good

condition and operated
correctly
Installation of safety netting
above FT-101

Loss of containment

Loss of alumina
production
Loss of production

Monitor the operating

temperature and pressure of
FT-101

Operators to
inspect the
equipment and
pipeline condition.

Injury or death of the

workers

ACTIONS

RANKING

Pipeline an equipment
thermal expansion
FT-101 operate
higher than operating
temperature of
138.26C
Damage of FT-101

RECOMMENDATIONS

Wearing protective hard hat

and as well as personal
protective equipments
Perform non destructive
testing (NDT) on vessel to
test vessel thickness and
pipeline integrity
Visual inspection of any
hairline crack on the
equipment.

N/A

Possible

Critical

Extreme

Provide adequate training for

operators
Compulsory in preparing
operating procedure manual
by designers and the

Offshore health
and safety
executive to
handle all the
safety requirement
rule and
regulations.

Maintenance
engineering team
to perform the
testing and fix
broken pipeline or
equipment
leakage.

Designers/
consultants to
provide the
training.
Operators to obey

Damage to equipment
which might include
FT-101

Equipment/Instrumentation
Malfunction

Control valve V-01

failure

Explosion
No heat exchange
(fail to open)

N/A

Unlikely

Major

High

FT-101 over
pressurized (fail to
close)

Process Upsets

Process Upsets

Flow deviation

Pressure deviation

Loss of containment
(fail to close)
Increase in
temperature in FT-101
Insufficient
temperature to digest
bauxite ore
FT-101 over
pressurized and
rupture

procedure have to be strictly

obeyed

the rule and

regulations from
the operating
manual

Install bypass valve to the

control valve

Process
engineering team
to design and
maintenance team
to install bypass
and isolation
valves

Install isolation valves around

valve V-01 for maintenance of
broken V-01

N/A

Relief valve V-04

Likely

Moderate

High

Installation of flow control

system at the outlet stream of
spent liquor

Possible

Critical

Extreme

Installation of emergency
shutdown valve and high
temperature alarm.

Likely

Major

Extreme

Visual inspection on the

pipeline for any possible
defects.

Loss of containment
Upsets to downstream
equipment

Process Upsets

Corrosion/ erosion

Personal injury or
death
Cracking and leakage
of FT-101 and as well
as inlet and outlet
pipelines S019, S020,
S021.

Nickel alloy steel materials

for all the pipelines and tube
side of FT-101

Frequent non destructive test

for pipeline and vessel wall
thickness

Cracking of vessel or
pipeline
9

Utilities Failures

Loss of power

Loss of functionality
of cascade control
systems
Pressure build up in
FT-101
Loss of alumina

Fail open/closed valves

Unlikely

Moderate

Moderate

Backup generator for

important process equipment

Process
engineering team
to design and
electrician to
install the control
system
Electrical
engineering team
to install
emergency
shutdown valve
connected to high
temperature alarm
and display at the
indicator

Operators to
perform the
checking
periodically.
Maintenance
engineering team
to perform the
testing.
Electrical
engineering team
to install backup
generator

production

HAZOP
Project: Alumina refiney
P&ID No.: 0001
Node Description: Flash Tank FT-101

Date:
27/4
Node No.: FT-101

HAZOP Lead: Kelvin Tan Khai Yik

HAZOP Scribe: Vincent Tan Kok Yeow

No.

Parameter

Guideword

Possible Cause (s)

Deviation

Consequence

Safeguard
(Existing)

Recommendations

1.

Level

No

1. No flow through inlet S019.

2. More flow through liquid outlets S020.
3. Major rupture in vessel FT-101 that
caused loss of slurry

Slurry cannot be cooled down

properly (2)
Improper separation of vapour and
slurry (2)
No production (1)
Loss of production (3)
Loss of containment (3)

FT-101 shutdown procedure

(1)
Level control systems LIC01 and LIC 05.
Low level alarms (LLA 04)
Bypass valve V-02 around
I-3 (1)

Perform regular inspection

and maintenance onto the
equipment.

2.

Level

Less

1. Less flow through inlet S019.

2. More flow through liquid outlets S-20.
3. Rupture in vessel FT-101.

Reduced product quality (2)

No production (1)
Loss of production (3)
Loss of containment (3)
Slurry cannot be cooled down
properly (1,2)
mproper separation of vapour and
slurry (2)

Same as 1.

Same as 1.

3.

Level

More

1. More flow through inlet S019.

2. Less flow through liquid outlets S020.

Reduced product quality (1,2)

Liquid carry over by vapour to outlet
S021. (1,2)
Slurry cannot be cooled down
properly (1,2)
Improper separation of vapour and

Same as 1.
Liquid outlet bypass valves
V-11 through I-1.

Same as 1.

Action
-Electrical
Engineering to install
alarms
-Process engineering
to install bypass valve
-Operator to perform
regular inspection
-Maintenance team to
repair the broken
equipment.
Same as 1.

Same as 1.

slurry (1,2)
4.

Pressure

Less

1. Less pressure in inlet line S019.

2. Less pressure in liquid outlets S020.
3. Pressure relief valve V-04 fails to close
completely
4. Minor rupture in FT-101.
5. Pressure controller PC-03 fails to close
valve V-07.

Slurry not effectively cooling down

(1,2).
Inefficient in flashing (1) .
Multiphase flow occurs (2).
Liquid hard to flow from one tank to
another (2).
Loss of production (4)
Lead to deformation of vessel (3,4,5)
Loss of containment (4).

Level control
Pressure controller

Closely monitor the pressure

in the flask tank.
Install Vent.
Same as 1.

5.

Pressure

More

1.
2.
3.
4.

Increase the temperature of slurry (1,

2).
Transportation flow issue of slurry
from one tank to tank (2).
Rupture in FT-101 (1,2,3,4)
Reduced product quality (1,2,3,4)

Same as 4.

6.

Flow

No

1. No flow in Inlet line S-19.

2. No flow in liquid outlets S020.
3. No flow in gas outlet line S021.

7.

Flow

Less

1. Less flow in Inlet line S-19.

2. Less flow in liquid outlets S020.
3. Less flow in gas outlet line S021.

Level control systems LIC01 and LIC 05.

Pressure relief valve V-04
(1,4)
Pressure controller PC-03
(1,4)
Manual bypass of RV-01
with V-02 (3,4)
FT-101 shutdown procedure
(1,2,3,4)
High pressure alarm to give
notification
Level control systems LIC01 and LIC-02 (2)
Liquid outlet bypass I-1.
FT-101 shutdown procedure
(1,2,3)
Pressure relief valve V- 04
(3)
Pressure control system
PC-03 (2)
Low level alarm to notify
(2)
As 6.

8.

Flow

More

1. More flow in Inlet line S-19.

2. More flow in liquid outlets S020.
3. More flow in gas outlet line S021.

9.

Temperature

Less

FT-101 shutdown procedure

(1,2,3,4)
Level control systems LIC04 and LIC-02 (2)
Pressure relief valve V-04.
(3)Pressure control system
PC-03. (3)
notify.
Pressure control system
PC-03 (1)

More pressure in inlet line S019.

More pressure in liquid outlets S020.
Pressure relief valve V-04 fails to open
More pressure in gas outlet line S-21.

1. Low pressure in FT-101.

2. High pressure inlet stream S019.

No production (1,2,3)
Build of liquid in FT-101 (2)
Pressure build up in FT-101 (3)

Less production (1,2,3)

Build of liquid in FT-101 (2)
Pressure build up in FT-101 (3)
Reduced product quality (1,2,3,4)
No production (4)
Loss of containment (4)
Damage to equipment upstream and
downstream of FT-101 (1,2,3)

Inefficient separation
Condensation of vapour

Same as 1

Same as 4

Same as 1

Same as 1.

Same as 1.

Same as 1.

Same as 1.
High level alarm to notify (2).
High pressure alarm to notify.

Same as 1

Installation of temperature
control system TI-01

Same as 1

10.

Temperature

11.

Maintenance

More

3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Changes in atmospheric conditions

High temperature inlet stream S019.
High pressure in FT-101
Low pressure inlet stream S019.
Changes in atmospheric conditions
High temperature inlet stream S019.

Slurry is hard to flash cooled.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cracks/leakage of vessel FT-101

Failure of inlet valve V-02.
Failure of pressure relief valve V-04.
Failure of slurry outlet valve V-11

Required shutdown (1,2,3,4,5,6)

Requires replacement of FT-101
(1,2,3)

Inefficient separation
Condensation of vapour

FT-101 shutdown procedure

(1,2,3,4)
Pressure relief valve RV-01
(1)
Pressure control system
PC-01 (1)
FT-101 shutdown procedure
(1,2,3,4)
By pass valve I-3 for inlet
02.
Isolation valve V-01, V03
to serve the purposes of
maintenance
Pressure indicator on FT101 to indicate the vessel
pressure.

Installation of low temperature

alarm connected to TI-01
Installation of temperature
control system TI-01
Installation of high
temperature alarm connected
to TI-01
Same as 1.
Pressure indicator on FT-101
to indicate the vessel
pressure.

Same as 1

Same as 1

4.0 Mechanical design

For mechanical design, the flash column is designed as a thin walled pressure vessel under
internal pressure. The mechanical design for the vessel proposed will be based on the data in
process calculation and with some safety consideration added to the design temperature,
pressure, material of construction and corrosion allowance. The components to be designed as
listed as follows:
1
Orientation of pressure vessel
2
Type and thickness of head and end closure
3
Minimum wall thickness for the cylindrical pressure vessel body
4
Dead weight of vessel
5
Analysis of stresses
6
Elastic stability check
7
Skirt support
8
Base ring and anchor bolts
9
Pressure test
The operating condition for the flash vessel is 263.54kPa and 138.26oC. Nickel alloy 400 is
used for the vessel body construction. It might be a costly decision to choose alloy however
with the consideration of corrosive caustic medium and carbon steel only work well in the
medium up to temperature of 77oC, alloy 400 is chosen. Double welded butt which are fully
radiographed is used and gives a joint factor, J=1. Corrosion allowance is 4mm for corrosive
medium [3].
Pressure vessel orientation and type of head used and as well as closure end [3]
Vertically flash vessel is employed due to the reason of low feed capacity, low liquid hold up
time where the residence time is not the main factor in alumina refinery. The orientation favor
the transport of fluid from one tank to another by mean of gravitational force and pressure
differential. Conical bottom head are used in the design as it is generally for low pressure
application 2.64 bar and excessive material thickness are avoided. Advantages of the conical
head to dishes head is of minimizing the potential formation of stagnant fluid zones in relation
to the discharge of fluids from the flash vessels. The design formula for conical bottom is as
follows:
t=

pD
( 2 fj p ) cos

0.2899 x 4110
( 2 x 240 x 10.2899 ) cos 60

= 5 mm

Due to time constraint, the design stress for nickel alloy 400 is assumed to be the same as low alloy
steel. With design angle of 60oC as suggested by HATCH, and 10% extra above calculated
temperature and pressure for safety design purposes, the designed temperature and pressure is as
follows:
Design temperature = 138.26 x 1.1 = 152.09oC
Design pressure = 263.54 x 1.1 = 289.89kPa = 289.89 x 0.001 = 0.2899 N/mm2
The design stress with reference to temperature from table 13.2 = 240 N/mm 2

The calculated wall thickness for conical bottom is 5mm and with corrosion allowance, 5mm
+ 4mm = 9mm
Cylindrical shell
Pi D i
( 0.2899 ) (4110 )
Minimum wall thickness, e= 2 f Pi = 2(240)0.2899 =2.48 mm
Add corrosion allowance 2.48 mm + 4 mm 6.48 mm plate
Dead weight of vessel [3]
For cylindrical steel vessel with domed ends, uniform wall thickness,(Sinnott 2001)
WV=240CVDm(HV+0.8Dm)t
=240(1.08)(4.110+9x10-3)[7.19+0.8(4.11+9x10-3)](9)
=72523.51N 72.52 kN
where:
CV=1.08 with vessels with only few internal fittings
Dm=mean diameter of vessel (Di+t)
HV=length of cylindrical section
t=wall thickness,mm
Assume the ladder length is 7.19m for maintenance purposes,
For plain steel ladder, 150N/m x 7.19m = 1078.5N 1.08 kN
Total weight = 1.08 + 72.52 = 73.6kN
Analysis of stresses [3]

Figure 5

Stresses in a cylindrical shell under combined loading [3]

.
At bottom tangent line
P Di ( 0.2899 ) (4110)

=
=
=91.88 N /m m2
h
Pressure stresses: Longitudinal stresses,
2t
2( 6.48)
P Di ( 0.2899 ) (4110)
=45.86 N /mm2
Circumferential stresses, L = 4 t =
4 (6.48)

Dead weight stress:

W =

WV
( D i +t ) t

73.6 x 10
=0.878 N / m m2 (compressive)
(
)
4110+6.48 6.48

Bending stresses:
D0=4110+2x6.48=4122.96mm
Second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending,
IV =

4
4
4
4
11
4
Do Di )= ( 4122.96 4110 )=1.78 x 10 m m
(
64
64

Total bending moment at the plane being considered,

2

F x ( 2458 )( 6.48 )
M x= W =
=51606.20 Nm
2
2
where:
Dynamic wind pressure = 1280N/m2 (Sinnott 2001)
Mean diameter = 4.11+2(6.48)x10-3=4.12m

Loading(per linear meter), FW =1280x4.12=5277.4N/m

Mx Di
51606200 4110

=
+t =
+ 6.48 = 0.22 N /m m2
b
11
Bending stress,
IV 2
2
1.78 x 10

( )

The resultant longitudinal stress is:

Z = L + W b
W is compressivetherefore negative .
Z ( upwind )=45.86+0.878+0.22=47.04 N /mm2
Z ( downwind )=45.860.8780.22 = 46.60 N/mm2
( Z ( downwind ) is not takinginto consideration since value is+ ve)

47.04

91.8

Figure 6 Principal stresses on up-wind side [3]

Greatest difference between principal stresses =91.88 47.04 = 44.84 N/mm2

Satisfactory since greatest difference between principal stresses is below the maximum
allowable design stress (240N/mm2).
Elastic stability check (Buckling) [3]
Critical buckling stress:

C =2 104

t
6.48
=2 104
=31.43 N /m m2
Do
4122.97

( )

The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure,
2
= W + b=0.878+ 0.22=1.098 N /m m

As the calculated value is below critical buckling stress, the design is satisfactory.
Skirt support [3]
Skirt support is to be designed in the way that it is able to support the maximum dead weight
load of the vessel when it is completely filled with water.
For a straight cylindrical skirt,

s =90

Assume skirt height = 2m

Approximate weight = ( 4

x D2 x L)

g=

( 4 ( 4.11 ) 7.19) 1000 9.81=935896.3 N =935 kN

2

Weight of vessel= 72.52kN

Total weight=935+72.52=1007.52kN
Wind loading=5.28 kN/m
L+h skirt
7.19+2 2

5.28
=111.48kNm
Bending moment at base of skirt, Ms= Fw x (
)
2
2

As first trial, skirt thickness is to be taken the same as bottom section of vessel = 6.48mm
4 Ms
4 ( 111.48 x 103 ) x 10 3
2
Bending stress in the skirt, bs= ( D +t ) t D = ( 4110+ 6.48 ) 4110 6.48 =1.29 N /mm
s
s s
s

Dead weight stress in the skirt,

ws ( operating )=

ws (test )=

W
1007.52 x 103
=
=12.02 N /mm 2
( Ds +t s )t s ( 4110+6.48 ) 6.48

72.52 x 103
=0.865 N /mm2
( 4110+ 6.48 ) 6.48

2
^
Maximum s ( compressive )= bs + ws =1.29+12.02=13.31 N /m m

2
^
Maximum s ( tensile ) = bs ws =1.290.865=0.425 N /mm

Take joint factor J as 0.85.

Criteria for design:
^ s (tensile) f s Jsin
0.425(240)(0.85)sin900
0.425204
The young modulus for low nickel steel is 185469.04 N/mm2 at 138oC [13]
ts
sin s
^ s (compressive) 0.125 E
Ds

( )

13.31

0.125 ( 185469.04 )

6.48
( 4110
) sin 90

13.31 225
where:
f s ( design stress )
E(Youngs modulus at ambient temperature, N/mm2)
Since both constraints are satisfied, and add 4 mm for corrosion the design skirt thickness (ts)
is 6.48+4 = 10.48 mm
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2mm for corrosion, and give a design skirt thickness (ts) of
12mm.

Figure 7 Typical straight skirt support design [3]

Base ring and anchor bolts [3]

To transmit loads to the foundation slab, base ring is typically used with skirt support.
The anchor bolts tensile load works to withstand external pressure from overturning the
vessel (Sinnott 2001).
Approximate pitch circle diameter, say 2.1m
Circumference of bolt circle= 2100
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing =

2100
=10.9
600

Closest multiple of 4 =12 bolts

Take bolt design stress= 125N/mm2
Ms =111.48 kNm
Take W = operating value = 72.52 kN
1 4Ms
1
4 x 111.48 x 103
A
=
W
=
72.52 x 103
b
Bolt area required,
N b f b Db
12 x 125
2.1

93.22 mm2
Bolt root diameter=

Ab 4
93.22 x 4
=
=10.89 mm Small as it < 25mm

Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,

3
3
4 Ms W
4 111.48 10 30.32 10
Fb =
+
=
+
=10749.61 N /m
2
2
4.11
D s Ds
( 4.11 )

][

Taking the bearing pressure as 5N/mm2.

Fb
1 10749.61
The minimum width of the base ring, Lb= f c 103 = 5 103 =2.15 mm (size is small)
As the calculated root diameter and minimum width of base ring is too small, the smallest bolt
size is chosen.
Use M24 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area=353mm2
Actual width required=Lr+ts+50mm
=76+6.48+50

=132.48 mm
50mm is the allowance space.
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:
f c = F b = 10749.61 =0.077 N /m m2
3
3
139 10 139 10
Base ring minimum thickness, t b=Lr

3 f c
3(0.077)
=76
=3.09 mm
fr
140

where:
fr = allowable design stress in the ring material, and the basic design stress is 140N/mm2

Figure 8

Flange ring dimensions [3]

Figure 8.
Figure 9 Standard bolt size M24 and dimensions [3]

Pressure test [3]

Based on BS5500, for the proving of the integrity of vessel, test pressure of 30% above the
design pressure is used..
Test pressure=1.3 x 0.29N/mm2= 0.38N/mm2
( Test pressure ) ( tc ) ( f n ) 0.38 ( 6.484 )( 240 )
=
Design stress at test pressure, fa=
1.25 t ( Pd )
1.25 ( 6.48 ) ( 0.38 )
73.48 N /mm2
The vessel design is valid since the calculated design stress 73.48 is below the permissible
stress 240N/mm2.

4.1 Mechanical Drawing

Figure 10 Flash tank mechanical design

5.1 Critical Review

Flash Tank
The designed flash tank is sized in vertical arrangement and it has the diameter of 4.1and height of
7.25m and slurry pool height of 1.45m. The flash tank dimension is reliable as HATCH provided all
the information needed for the sizing. The main concern with the flash tank design is the transportation
flow of fluid from one tank to another. It is to ensure that the hydraulic head does not incur multiphase
flow in pipeline to minimize erosion. However, due to time constraint the report did not show the
design on hydraulic fluid transport. In addition, the valve sizing is also has been ignored due to time
management problem. Modelling of slurry flow can be done on the particular flash tank in order to
study better the efficiency of the flash tank and how the fluid behave in the tank.

Heat Exchanger
The design heat exchanger is of one shell two tube passes. The shell side of the heat exchanger is of
condenser configuration where the formula involves for the calculation of heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop are with the consideration of multiphase flow (condensing vapor) happening at the outer
tube of shell. However, the design equation proposed is not accurate as Kern method is employed.
There are other method like Bell method and Delaware method which can be used for the sizing of
heat exchanger as they provide more accurate pressure drop and with the consideration of baffle to
shell and tube to baffle leakages and as well as bypassing. The proposed design also without
consideration of venting non condensable air as in actual case there are non-condensable air exists in
heat exchanger that reduce the performance of overall heater. If I had to design it again, I would take
that into consideration and use sophisticated software to predict the performance of heat exchanger.

References
[1] Experiment 14. 2014. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER. Accessed November 10.
http://www6.kfupm.edu.sa/heattransfer/Expt_14_Shell%20and%20Tube%20HX%20Exp.pdf
[2] Kenmneth J. Bell. 1996. Thermal and hydraulic design of heat exchangers. Begell house: New York.
[3] Sinnot, R. K. 2005. Coulson & Richardsons chemical engineering volume 6. 4th ed. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
[4] Droy, Bernard and Dany Michaux. 2012. Bauxite ore digestion in the bayer process. Accessed November 11,
http://www.google.com/patents/US6555076
[5] Lowy, Gunnewiek and Umesh Shah. 2008. Flash Vessel Process Design. International Conference CFD in Oil & Gas, Metallurgical and Process Industries.
[6] KLM Technology Group.2011. START-UP SEQUENCE AND GENERAL COMMISSIONING PROCEDURES.
http://www.klmtechgroup.com/PDF/ess/PROJECT_STANDARDS_AND_SPECIFICATIONS_general_commissioning_procedures_Rev01.pdf
[7] Engineer Edge. 2000. Hydrostatic engineering review.
http://www.engineersedge.com/testing_analysis/hydrostatic_testing.htm
[8] Environmental Health and Safety. 2014. Chemical Spills Procedure. Accessed November 12
http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/emergency/spills.htm
[9] Kuppan Thulukkanam. 2013. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Second Edition. CRC Press: United State.
http://books.google.com.au/books?
id=ZsU5A1mANWUC&pg=PA1169&lpg=PA1169&dq=operating+procedure+for+heat+exchanger+start+up+and+shut+down+and+maintenance&source=bl
&ots=sa4DzDG-y8&sig=SH-eqbnSp17o2ZVYEh83Ozae3WM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k_FdVObBH-TAmQXT74CQDw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=operating
%20procedure%20for%20heat%20exchanger%20start%20up%20and%20shut%20down%20and%20maintenance&f=false
[10] Types of vessel head. 2013. Mycheme. Accessed November 11.
http://www.mycheme.com/types-of-vessel-head/
[11] Liptak, B. G. 2005. Heat Exchanger Control and Optimization.
http://books.google.com.au/books?
id=TxKynbyaIAMC&pg=PA2004&lpg=PA2004&dq=the+transfer+of+heat+is+one+of+the+most+basic+and+best+understood+unit+operation+of+the+proce
ssing+industries.
+Heat+can+betransferred+between+the+same+phases&source=bl&ots=jxqhQPdxDP&sig=7t4w5QQADVWp9T9XLmVdanl4_0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=V0xkVL
qbBOXlmAWgqIDQAg&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20transfer%20of%20heat%20is%20one%20of%20the%20most%20basic%20and
%20best%20understood%20unit%20operation%20of%20the%20processing%20industries.%20Heat%20can%20betransferred%20between%20the%20same
%20phases&f=false
[12] Module 2. 2014. Mechanical Design Standards. Accessed November 11. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103027/
[13] The Engineering Toolbox. 2014. Young Modulus of Elasticity for Metals and Alloys. Accessed November 11,
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/young-modulus-d_773.html