Physics in

Anesthesi
a

Gerald Ca
esar O. Lib
randa, MD

Common gas laws

applicable to anaesthesia
delivery 0system
0 Boyles law
Reynolds's number
0 Charles law
0 Gay lussac s law
0 Avagadros

hypothesis
0 Daltons law of
partial pressures
0 Bernoulis principle
0 Venturi effect
0 Hagen poisulles law
0 Grahams law

0 Coanda effect
0 Joule Thomson effect
0 Adiabatic

compression
0 Raoults law
0 Azeotropic mixtures
0 Critical temperature
0 Poynting effect
0 Henrys law

Simple mechanics

Simple mechanics

Pressure Conversions
1 atm = 101.3kPa = 760 mmHg = 1033 cmH2O =
14.6 lb/in2
100 kPa = 1 bar
1000 kPa = 1 mPa = 10 bar
1 kPa = 10 cmH2O = 7.5 mmHg

Simple mechanics
Energy
the capacity to do work (joules, J)

Work
Force acting upon an object to cause its displacement
in the direction of the force applied (joules,J).
J = FD = Fl = pA = pV (pressure and volume)
J is work, F is force and D is distance (displacement)
travelled in the direction of the force.

Simple mechanics
Joule
The work done when a force of one newton
moves one metre in the direction of the force
is one joule.
It can be shown that work is given by
pressure x volume. This enables indices such
as work of breathing to be calculated simply
by studying the pressure-volume curve

Simple mechanics
Watt
the power expended when one joule of energy is
consumed in one second is one watt.

P = W/T
P = FV (force and velocity)
P = p Q (pressure and flow)
Importance: if a pressure volume loop for a resp
cycle is plotted, the work of breathing may be found.
If the resp rate is now measured then the power may
be calculated.

Gases, liquids and solids

0 Freezing point: at any given pressure, the

transition between solid and liquids occurs at

a fixed temperature.
0 Boiling point: transition between liquid and

gas
0 Changes in ambient pressure causes boiling

and freezing temperature to vary.

Vapours and gases

Gas: Substance which is normally in gaseous
state at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure.
Vapour: gaseous substance which is normally
in liquid form at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure, since its critical
temperature is above the room temperature

Vapours and gases

0 Vapour formed from liquid by evaporation.
0 Occurs at surface of liquid and the

concentration of vapour increases.

0 Continues till there is a equilibrium when

no further increase in vapour

concentration is possible.
0 This is called saturated vapour

pressure

Saturated Vapour
Pressure
0 SVP increases with temperature
0 The temp at which SVP is equal to atm

pressure is called the boiling point

Important: Vapour pressure depends only on
the liquid (physical properties) and
temperature. Not affected by ambient
pressure.

Vaporization
Vapor Pressures at 200C
Amount of vapour depends on temperature
As anesthetic vapour is removed, latent heat is

removed from the remaining liquid and the vaporizer

walls
Vaporizer has to be heated to be able to produce
sufficient amounts of vapour
Isoflurane 239mmHg
Enflurane 175mmHg
Halothane 243mmHg
Desflurane 669mmHg
Sevofurane
157mmHg

Gas laws
applicabl
e to
Cylinders

0 What is the volume of oxygen in a full E

type ( 2000 psig) of cylinder that is available

for use at 15 psig (pressure at common gas
outlet)?
0 How long it will last if you use 3 liters/min

Boyles
law

0 states that at constant temperature(T)the volume(V) of

a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the

absolute pressure(P).
0 V 1/p
0 PV = constant (if T is kept constant)
0 Same number of molecules at the same temperature
occupying different volumes will exert different
pressures. However, their product will be the same.

0 pressure in cylinder = P1( 2000 psig)

0 volume of the cylinder = V1 ( 5L)
0 pressure at common gas outlet = P2 (15

psig),
0 volume of oxygen available( V2) = ?
0 P1V1= constant
0 P2V2= constant
0 Hence P1V1= P2V2
0 2000 X 5= 15 X V2
0 V2= 2000 x 5/15 = 665 litres

Boyles Law

0 So if we use 3 litres of oxygen, the E type full

cylinder will last for about 220 mins (5 liters

of oxygen will remain in the cylinder and
cannot be used).

Can we use Boyles Law

in calculating the amount
of N2O available in N2O
cylinder?
0 At room temperature N2O exists as liquid and O2

exists as gas

Why N2O exists as liquid

at room temperature?
0 Nitrous oxide has a critical temperature of

36.5o C.
0 This is the temperature above which the gas
cannot be compressed to its liquid state with
any amount of pressure. So a gas can remain
in liquid state below its critical temperature.
0 Critical pressure is the pressure of the gas at
its critical temperature.

Critical temperature:
Gases can be liquefied by increasing the
pressure or
cooling.
However , there is a temperature above
which any gas cannot be liquefied by
increasing
pressure.
This
is
critical
temperature.
0Temperature above which a gas cannot

be liquified by pressure alone

> N2O = 36.5 C
> O2 = -116 C

Critical pressure
Minimum pressure at critical temperature
required
to liquefy a gas
0The pressure at which a gas liquefies at

its critical Temperature

> N2O ~ 73 bar @ 36.5 C
> N2O ~ 52 bar @ 20.0 C

Critical volume
Volume occupied by 1 mole a gas at critical
pressure and critical temperature

What is the law that is

used to calculate
amount of N2O in a full
E type of cylinder?

Avagadro
hypothes s
is

Avagadros hypothesis
0 States that equal volume of gases contain equal

number of molecules at Standard Temperature and

Pressure (STP).
0 Pressure exerted by a given number of molecules
of ideal gas given in a given temperature is
constant and is independent of its molecular
weight
0 One mole of a gas contains 6.023 x10 23 molecules
0 This law can also be defined as One mole (molecular weight) of any gas at
STP
occupies 22.4 litres of volume.

0 When mole is expressed in grams its called

as gram molecular weight.

0 So 1 gram molecular weight of any gas

at STP will contain 6.023x10 23

molecules and occupies 22.4 litres of
volume.
0 Standard temperature is 273 K and Standard

Pressure is 760 mm of Hg.

How do you use this law

to know how much of
nitrous oxide is present
in a E type of cylinder for
use?
0 Weight of liquid N20 = weight of full cylinder
tare weight
= 3.3 kgs

0 Using Avagadros Hypothesis 1 gram

molecular weight of any substance will

occupy 22.4 litres;
0 The molecular weight of N2O = 44 g
0 So 44g N2O will give 22.4 litres
0 3300 g will give 3300 X 22.4= 1680 litres.
44
1680 LITRES AT 273 KELVNS

Osmosis and colligative

properties
Osmole: one osmole is an amount of particles
equal to Avogadro's number
Osmolarity: The amount of osmotically active
particles present per litre of solution(mmol/l)
Osmolality: The amount of osmotically active
particles present per kilogram of solvent
(mmol/kg)

Osmosis and colligative

properties

Osmosis and colligative

properties

Raoults law
The depression of freezing point or reduction of
the vapour pressure of a solvent is proportional
to the molar concentration of the solute.

Surface tension
The force per unit length acting across any line
in the surface and tending to pull the surface
apart across the lines.
In the surface layer, some of the forces of
attraction between the molecules act in a
direction parallel to the surface of the liquid
and result in the liquid surface behaving as
though a shin were present

the
law that
is
used to
calculate
amount o
f N2O
available
at
room
temperat
ure?

Charles
Law

0 States that at constant pressure, volume of a gas

is directly proportional to the temperature.

0 V T or
0 V / T = constant.

0A full E type nitrous oxide

cylinder will give 1680

liters of gas at STP( 273 K
and 760 mm of Hg)
0How much of N2O is
available for use at room
temperature ---- 200 C?

0 full E type nitrous oxide cylinder = V1 = 1680 L

0 Standard temperature = T1 = 273 K
0 room temperature = T2 =( 293 K)
0 Volume of N2O at room temperature= V2 = ?
0 V1/ T1= V2/ T2
0 V2 = V1 X T2

T1
0 1680 X 293

= 1803 litres.

273
0 A full E type nitrous oxide cylinder will give
1803 liters of gas at room temperature.

Why oxygen cylinders should

not be kept under the sun?

Heated up
In the sun

Gay Lussacs law

0 At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed amount of a

perfect gas varies in proportion to its absolute temperature.

0 P T or
0 P/T = constant
Tip : Water Boyles at a constant temperature and that Prince
Charles is under constant pressure to be King.

Why will the cylinder

explode?
0 If oxygen cylinder is kept under the sun its

temperature increases and according to GAY

LUSSACs law pressure is directly
proportional to temperature, volume being
constant.
0 Pressure increases inside the cylinder so
much that the cylinder may even explode.
0 Hence the oxygen cylinders should be stored
in a cooler place.

What are the

precautions taken to
prevent explosion in
cylinders?
0 To prevent explosion
there are 3 types of safety
valves in the cylinder
0 a)Fusible plug. b) Frangible disc. And c) Safety
relief valve.
0 FRANGIBLE DISC has a diaphragm that breaks at a

particular pressure.
0 As the temperature inside the cylinder increases,
the pressure also increases (GAY LUSSACS
LAW), the diaphragm in the frangible disc breaks
and gives vent to the gas and prevents explosion.

0 SAFETY RELIEF VALVE opens at a particular

pressure and closes once the pressure inside

the cylinder decreases.
0 Pressure inside the cylinder can increase as a
result of increase in temperature (GAY
LUSSACS LAW) if accidentally the cylinder
is heated up.

Pressure Reducing Valves

High and low pressure valves push against an
area of diaphragm connected to a rod. When low
gas pressure decreases, the tension of the spring
overcomes the forces of the gas and the rod is
pushed out, opening the high pressure inlet. Low
and high pressure would then overcome the rod,
closing the high pressure inlet.

What is
Universa
l g as
constant
?

0 Boyles law, Charles law and Gay Lussacs law

when combined with that of Avagadros

hypothesis i.e.
0 PV = K1 (Boyles law)
0 V/T = K2 (Charles law)
0 P/T = K3 (Gay Lussacs law)
0 PV/T = universal gas constant= R

0 Using Avogadros Hypothesis at constant pressure

and temperature V= number of molecules (n).

0 Combining all the above laws PV=nRT.
0 Where n is the number of molecules of the gas.
0 Universal gas constant is 1.987
joules/degree/mole in SI units.

dons
pressure
gauge wi
ll
indicate
the
content o
f the
oxygen
cylinder?
Why the Bourdons
pressure gauge of N2O does
not show the contents of
the cylinder?

PV = nRT

0 Using UNIVERSAL GAS LAW PV= nRT.

0 Where P=pressure
0 n=number of molecules
0 R=universal gas constant and
0 T= temperature
0 Gauge pressure = n ( content of the cylinder)
0 Hence the pressure gauge acts as a content gauge

0 N2O is a liquid at room temperature and hence it

will not follow the universal gas constant equation.

0 The pressure in the N2O Bourdon pressure gauge
always shows 750 psig till all the liquid N2O
becomes vapour.
0 750 psig is the saturated vapour pressure of N2O
at 20oC.
0 When all the liquid nitrous oxide converts into the
vapor state, the Bourdons pressure gauge will act
as the content gauge and BOYLES LAW will be
applicable.

Which la
w is
used in fi
lling
a mixture
of
CO2 and
O2 in
a same
cylinder?

Daltons law of partial

pressure

Daltons law of partial

pressure
0 States that in a mixture of gases the pressure

exerted by each gas is same as the pressure

exerted as if it alone occupied the container.
0 It can also be defined as in a mixture of gases the
total pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to
the sum of pressures exerted by the individual
gases.
0 If a pressure exerted by a gas is 50 % of the total
pressure exerted by all gases in that container,
then it will occupy exactly 50 % of its volume.

0 The pressure exerted by each of the gases is

called as the PARTIAL PRESSURE OF THAT

GAS.
0 The partial pressure of the component gas
must be proportionate to its percentage in
the gas mixture.
0 Partial pressure= fractional concentration X
total pressure.

How do you fill CO2 and O2

in the same cylinder?
0 In order to have CO2

10% in a cylinder, first

the cylinder can be
filled with CO2 upto a
pressure f 1380 kPa
and then O2 is filled to
a total pressure of
13800 kPa ( total
pressure in an E type of
O2 cylinder)

Why sho
uld
you open
the
cylinder
slowly?

0 Rapid opening of the valve -> rapid compression

of oxygen in the narrow tube -> very high

temperature -> explosion.
0 ADIABATIC PROCESS.
0 Hence oxygen cylinder should be opened slowly to
prevent adiabatic process.

Adiabatic compression or
expansion of gases
0 Adiabatic,

when applied to expansion or

compression of a gas, means that energy is not
added or removed when the changes occur.

0 The term

adiabatic

implies a change in
the state of a gas without exchange of heat
energy with its surroundings
0 Compression of gas temperature rises
0 Expansion of gas temperature falls

Adiabatic compression or
expansion of gases
0 Practical application:
Compression of gases will require added

cooling
In cyroprecipitate expansion of gas in the probe

low temp in probe tip

Flow Met
ers

What are
the
laws
governin
g
the fows
in a
fow met
er?

Fluids
0 Fluids are gases or liquids.
0 Flow is the quantity passing a point/cross sectional

area per unit time; represented by Q.

0 Flow can be

0 Laminar movement in a steady manner without eddies

0 Turbulent

0 Flow changes from laminar to turbulent and is

halved when the Reynolds number which is a

product of certain factors crosses the value of
2000.
0 Flow is related to the distance from the side

Reynolds number

Reynolds number
0 It is dimensionless and has no units.
0 When
0 Re < 2000 laminar
0 Re > 2000 turbulent

Points to remember:
Viscosity is the important property of

laminar flow
Density is the important property of
turbulent flow
Reynolds number of 2000 delineates
laminar from turbulent flow

Here low flow of O2 is

used thus the flow is
LAMINAR FLOW-

HeganPoissuilles
Law is applicable.

Laminar Flow
A steady flow greatest at the centre and
slowest at the periphery of tube.
Physical property effecting laminar flow is
viscosity to which it is inversely
proportional.

Law applicable Hagen Poiseuilles law

applies only to Newtonian fluids

Viscosity
Viscosity may be thought of as stickiness of the
fluid
Viscosity will affect the flow of fluids through a tube:
the more viscous the fluid, the slower the flow.
Viscosity is defined as that property of a fluid that
causes it to resist flow. The coefficient of viscosity
( ) is defined as :
( ) = force x velocity gradient
area

Coefficient of viscosity

Viscosity
0() =force/area x velocity gradient
Fluids that obey this formula are referred to as Newtonian

fluids
Some biological fluids are non Newtonian
A prime example is blood .
Viscosity changes with the rate of flow of blood ,in stored
blood, with time (blood thickens on storage)
Viscosity of liquids diminishes with increase in
temperature
Viscosity of a gas increases with increase in temperature

Hegan- Poissuilles
law
0 Is applied for laminar flow.
0 It states that the flow through the tube is

directly proportional to pressure gradient and

4th power radius and inversely proportional to
length of the tube and viscosity of the gas.

0 Q= r 4(P1 P2)

8L
0 Where Q= flow of liquid
r= radius of the tubing
P1 P2 = pressure gradient across the tubing
(eta) = viscosity
L= length of the tubing.

Here the flow is

orificial.

Grahams Law of
turbulent flow is
applicable

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow describes the situation in which
fluid flows unpredictably with multiple eddy
currents and is not parallel to the sides of the tube
through which it is flowing.

Facilitated by corners, irregularities and sharp

angles etc.
Laminar flow passing through a constriction
Velocity in constriction is increased overall,

greater friction, and the resistance to flow is no

longer constant
Affected by density of gas.

Grahams law for

turbulent fow

Why should you know

that Graham's law is
applicable for high
fows?
0 The flow meters are always calibrated at 760 mm
of Hg.
0 If the anaesthesia machine is used in a high
altitude area, where the atmospheric pressure is
very low, the density of the gas decreases, but
viscosity will not change

0 As higher flow depends on density and as per

GRAHAMS LAW FOR TURBULENT FLOW,

flow is inversely proportional to square root
of density i.e. FLOW 1/ density
0 Flow will be higher than the actual flows that
are set in the flow meters.
0 The opposite will occur under hyperbaric
conditions.

Turbulent Flow law

applicable

Flow Of Fluids Through

Orifices
0 In an orifice the diameter of fluid pathway

exceeds the length. Flow rate of a fluid through

an orifice is dependant upon:
The square root of the pressure difference across

the orifice
The square root of the diameter of the orifice
The density of the fluid, as flow through an orifice

inevitably involves some degree of turbulence

Resistance to gas flow through

tracheal tubes of different internal
diameter (ID)

Anesthetic breathing systems

0 A sudden change in diameter , irregularity of the

wall may be responsible for a change from laminar

to turbulent flow.

0 Thus a tracheal and other breathing tubes must

possess:

Smooth internal surfaces

Gradual bends
No constrictions
Large diameter
Short length
Resistance to breathing is much greater when a

tracheal tube of small diameter is used

Application
1. Undersized ETT tremendous decrease in

flow of gases
2. Wide bore and curved rather than sharp
angles should be preferred.
3. In resp tract obst, HeliOx mix given to
reduce density and improve the flow
4. Laminar flow during quiet breathing
changed to turbulent during speaking and
coughing leading to dsypnea

Application
5. In flow meter at low flows, Hagen

Poiseuilles Law applies laminar, while at

higher flows, law applicable to turbulent
flow.
6. Numerical value for critical value in l/min
for O2 + N2O is same as ID of ETT in mm.
Flow changes to turbulent from laminar.

Why fow meters of

each gas should be
calibrated for that gas
specifically?

0 Each of the flow meters are calibrated for

that particular gas.

0 Different gases have different viscosity and
density.
0 Thus if gas other than the particular gas for
which the flow meter has been calibrated is
used, the flows shown may not be the actual
flow that is being delivered to the patient.

Gas laws applicable to

vaporizers

How to calculate 1ml of

sevofurane gives how
much of vapor?
0 Molecular weight of sevoflurane is 200. Density of

sevoflurane is 1.5
0 According to AVAGADROS HYPOTHESIS 200g of
sevoflurane gives 22400 ml of vapors.
0 So 1g of sevoflurane will give 22400/200= 112 ml
of vapors.

0 Since the density is 1.5, 1.5 g is equal to 1

ml.
0 So 1ml of sevoflurane liquid =112 x 1.5 =
168 ml.
0 Since this 168 ml of sevoflurane vapour is at
standard temperature is 273 K
0 Using CHARLES LAW one can calculate the
vapors available at room temperature i.e. 293
K

0 According to CHARLES LAW: V/T = constant

0 So V1/T1 = V2/ T2
0 V1= 168 ml ( vapors at 273 K) T1 = 273 K

V2 = ?
T2 = 293 K
V2 = 168 X 293 = 180 ml
273
Thus 1 ml of sevofurane will give 180 ml of
sevofurane vapors at room temperature (
200 C)

How do y
ou
estimate
the
cost of v
olatile
anaesthe
tics?

0 If 2% of sevoflurane is used with a fresh gas flow of

6 litres.
0 Then per min 120 ml of sevoflurane vapors will be
used up
0 So 120 X 60 ml = 7200 ml of sevoflurane vapors will
be used for 1 hr. duration of sevoflurane anesthesia.
0 1 ml of sevoflurane gives 180 ml of vapors at 20 o C.
0 So 7200 ml of sevoflurane vapors is produced by
7200 = 40 ml of sevoflurane.
180

0 Cost of 250 ml of sevoflurane is Rs.7500.

0 So 1 ml sevoflurane costs Rs. 30.
0 So the cost of sevofurane anaesthesia if

it is used at 2% per hour 30 X 40 =

Rs.1200
0 A simple formula to calculate cost is
3 X fresh gas fow X % kept on dial
setting

Breathing circuits

used in checking the

integrity of the inner
tube of the Bains
Circuit in PETHIKS
TEST?

Bernoullis

Bernoullis principle.
0 when a gas flowing through a tube encounters a

constriction, at that point the pressure drops and the

velocity increases
0 An increase in the flow velocity of an ideal fluid will be
accompanied by a simultaneous reduction in its pressure
0 i.e. kinetic energy increases and the potential energy
decreases.
0 This is called as Bernoullis principle.

0 The law of conservation of energy

0 The fluid has potential energy due to the pressure

driving it in the direction of flow and kinetic energy

because it is moving
0 Gain in kinetic energy (1/2 m v2), potential energy
(m g h) decreases so that total remains same
0 Results in a increase in velocity and reduction in
pressure.
Importance : Resultant drop in pressure applications
such as nebulizers and Venturi masks.

The Venturi effect

The effect by which the introduction of a
constriction to fluid flow within a tube causes the
velocity of the fluid to increase, therefore, the
pressure of the fluid to fall.

0 Venturi is a tube with a cross section gradually

decreases and then increases.

0 Entrainment of air from the surrounding due to fall
in pressure at the point of constriction is called as
VENTURIS EFFECT.

Venturi Masks

Color

Delivered FiO2
fow(l/min)

Fresh gas

Blue

24%

White

28%

Orange

31%

Yellow

35%

Red

40%

10

Green

60%

15

Entrainment ratio 100ax21b=30x required

FiO2

Working of a nebulizer

In this case, gas as the driving fluid enters by

the central tube, entrains liquid from a side
tube breaks it up into droplets suitable for
inhalation.

Coanda Effect
If a constriction occurs at bifurcation because
of increase in velocity and reduction in the
pressure, fluid (air, blood) tends to stick to one
side of the branch causing maldistribution.
0Coanda Effect - gas flow through a tube, with

two Venturis tends to cling either to one side

of the tube or to the other
The application of a small pressure distal to

the restriction may enable gas flow to be

switched from one side to another

Coanda Effect
Application:
1.Mucus plug at the branching of tracheobronchial tree may cause maldistribution of
respiratory gases.
2.Unequal flow may result because of

atherosclerotic plaques in the vascular tree

3.Fluid logic used in ventilators employs this

principle to replace valves or mobile parts.

Circle System
0 Either a semi-closed or closed system; with the

absorber out of circuit it becomes as semiclosed

rebreathing system
0 Low flow has been defined as a total fresh gas flow of
1 l/minute, and minimum flow as 0.5 l/min
0 Oxygen must not be reduced below the minimum
250ml/min, the basic metabolic requirement being 200
ml/min
0 At induction, anesthetic uptake is high
0 Concentration effect: If very low gas flow is used,
alveolar oxygen concentration increases while N2O
concentration decreases. It is necessary to maintain a
high fresh gas flow during induction and until expired
concentration of anesthetics is near inspired
concentration (10 minutes)

Circle System

Mapleson A (Magill) breathing

system

0 Fresh gas inlet remote from the subject while the

expiratory valve is near the subject

0 Economic to use during spontaneous respiration
0 During spontaneous ventilation, provided that
fresh gas flow is at least equal to alveolar
ventilation there will be no rebreathing of CO2
0 During controlled breathing the economy of gas
flow is lost
0 Positive pressure provided during inspiration opens

the pressure relief valve, venting fresh gas, needs to

be set at a higher pressure leading to retention of
CO2

Mapleson A

T - Piece
0 Geometric opposite of Mapleson A circuit
0 Fresh gas flow inlet is near the subject while

expiratory valve or port is furthest

0 No CO2 will be rebreathed if fresh gas flow is
approximately twice the minute volume
during spontaneous respiration
0 If minute ventilation is increased, fresh gas
flow can be reduced
0 Increase in either one decreases CO2 tension

T - Piece

E Valveless system
suitable for
spontaneously
breathing subjects
F Pediatric valveless
system

Gas laws applicable at

alveoli

Which law is used to know the

diffusion of gases across the
alveoli in to the blood

Ficks law

Solubility and diffusion

Ficks law
0 Diffusion across a membrane

=k x pressure gradient x surface area

thickness of membrane
K = diffusion coefficient

molecular weight
0 The diffusion coefficient for oxygen is 1.0, for

carbon dioxide it is 20.3, and for nitrogen it is

0.53.

Solubility and diffusion

Application:
1.Alveolar capillary membrane Co transfer
test
2.Anaesthetic vapour diffusing into breathing
circuits and later acting as Vaporizers at the
time of discontiuation of anaesthetic.
3.N2O diffusion into cuff of ETT
4.Diffusion of N2O into air filled cavities

Which la
w
governs
the
amount o
f O2
dissolved
in
the blood
?

Henrys
law

0 Henrys law states that the amount of a gas

dissolved in a unit volume of a solvent is directly

proportional to its partial pressure at STP.

0 The law also predicts how much of a gas

dissolves in a liquid.
0 According to this law, the volume of gas that
dissolves in a liquid is equal to its solubility
coefficient times its partial pressure.
0 V = x PGAS
0 Where V = volume of the gas dissolved, is

the solubility coefficient of the gas in the

liquid and Pgas is the partial pressure of the
liquid

0 The solubility coefficient of oxygen is 0.003 ml/dl.

0 Thus at 100 mmHg of oxygen tension, the amount

of oxygen in the dissolved form will be 0.3 ml.

Solubility and diffusion

Solubility and diffusion

Applications:
1.Flow meters: each gas with its own physical

property must pass through its own calibrated flow

meter.
2.Rate of diffusion is slower in liquids and thus local

anaesthetics, if not injected in close proximity to the

nerve fibre will not be effective.
3.Helium, a lighter gas is used in airway obstruction to

improve diffusion and gas exchange

Solubility and diffusion

Blood: gas solubility coefficient
The ratio of the amount of substance in equal
volume phases of blood and gas in a closed
system at equilibrium and at standard
temperature and pressure

Solubility and diffusion

Oil: gas solubility coefficient
The ratio of the amount of substance present
in equal volume phases of oil and gas in a
closed system at equilibrium and at standard
temperature and pressure

Highest lipid solubility greatest potency

as anaesthetics.
Basis for Meyer Overton theory of
anaesthesia.
N 2O

Ether
Halothane

1.4
65
- 224,

Application : Halothane very potent and needs

lesser concentration in alveoli and brain

Solubility and diffusion

Bunsen solubility coefficient
The volume of gas, corrected to
standard temperature and pressure,
that dissolves in one unit volume of
liquid at the temperature concerned
where the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid is one atmosphere.

Solubility and diffusion

Ostwald solubility coefficient
The volume of gas that dissolves in one unit
volume of liquid at the temperature concerned.

The Ostwald solubility coefficient is,

therefore, independent of the partial
pressure.

Solubility and diffusion

Solubility co-efficient
Higher the solubility, easier it is for the gas to
diffuse, e.g. Carbon dioxide is 20 times more
diffusible than oxygen and thus diseases
affecting gas exchange in alveoli affect
oxygenation rather than CO2

Solubility and diffusion

Membrane area & thickness
Diffusion is inversely proportional to the
thickness
of
membrane
and
directly
proportional to the membrane area across
which diffusion has to take place.

Cardiac Output
Measurement
The Fick principle
The total uptake or release of a substance by
an organ is equal to the product of the blood
flow to the organ and the arterio-venous
concentration difference of the substance.

Miscellaneous Knowledge

Heat transfer
0 Form of energy while temperature is a measure of the

random thermal movements of molecules or atoms

0 Progressive addition of heat results to change in
phase
0 Latent heat heat necessary to overcome the
cohesive forces
0 Heat energy can be transferred by

Conduction metal , fixed mean position, by vibration

Convention liquids and gases, convection current or

bulk movement
Radiation infrared radiation, can in vacuum in absence
of any medium or continuity. E.g. sun to earth.

Importance heat loss suffered by patient during

prolonged periods of anaesthesia and sedation.

Humidity
0 Amount of water present in atmosphere
0 Absolute humidity
0 Relative humidity
0 Humidification requires addition of latent heat
0 Hygroscopic material
0 One that attracts moisture from the atmosphere

Importance : the main location of hygroscopic

medium is inside heat and moisture exchange
(HME) filters.

This equation may be used in anaesthetics when

calculating the contents of an oxygen cylinder.
- constant room temp
- fixed internal volume,
- R is a constant
Only variables now are P and n so that
Pn
Therefore pressure gauge acts as a content
gauge for gases measure of amount of O2
left in a cylinder.
Remaining time = O2 cylinder pressure / (200 x Oxygen fow
rate)

We cannot use a nitrous oxide cylinder pressure gauge in the

same way is that these cylinders contain both vapour and liquid
and so the gas laws do not apply.

Capacitors and
capacitance
Capacitor
A device that stores electrical charge.
Consists of two conducting plates separated
by non conducting material dielectric.
Capacitance
The ability of a capacitor to store electric
charge (farads, F).

Inductors and inductance

Inductor

An inductor is an electric component that

opposes changes in current flow by the
generation of an electromotive force.

Inductors and inductance

Current does not flow immediately, but
increases slowly in step with the built up of
magnetic lines of force.
Inductors tends to block AC but pass DC,
because reactance of inductors increases with
frequency
Inductance
Inductance is the measure of the ability to
generate a resistive electromotive force under
the influence of changing current

Defibrillators
Charging
When charging the defibrillator, the
switch is positioned so that the 5000 V
DC current flows only around the upper
half of the circuit. It, therefore, causes a
charge to build up on the capacitor
plates

Defibrillators
Discharging
When discharging, the upper and lower
switches are both closed so that the
stored charge from the capacitor is now
delivered to the patient. The inductor
acts to modify the current waveform
delivered .

Defibrillators

Spectrophotometry basic
concepts
Definition:
Radiation is of different wavelengths. If
radiation is passed through a solution,
different wavelengths are absorbed by
different substances.
0Beers law
0Lamberts law

Spectrophotometry basic
concepts

0 Beers law

0 Absorption of radiation by a given thickness

and concentration of a solution is the same as

twice the thickness with half the concentration.

0 Lamberts law
0 Equal thickness absorb equal amounts of

radiation.
Both laws say that the absorption of radiation
depends on the amount of a particular
substance. This has been utilised in pulse
oximetry.

Pulse oximetry
The concentration and molar extinction
coefficient are constant.
The only variable becomes path length,
which alters as arterial blood expands
the vessels in a pulsatile fashion.

References:
1. Fundamentals of Anaesthesia

2. Understanding Anesthesia equipment by

Dorsch and Dorsch

3. Physics, Pharmacology and

Physiology for Anaesthetists

4. Basic physics and measurement in

ANAESTHESIA

5. Basic Physics applied to anaesthesiology

by Selvakumar. CASCO 2012 august,

Coimbatore.

6. Physics and Anaesthesia by Saeeda

Haideer