Algebra:

Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants

,
`

.
|
mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
.
This matrix may be represented by the symbol
( )
n m
ij
a

or by A
m n
. The element of a
ij
is the number
in the i
th
row and the j
th
column.
EXAMPLE

,
`

.
|
5
4
0
2
3
1
,

,
`

.
|

5
2
3
3
2
x
x
x
x
,

,
`

.
|


cos sin
sin cos
.
DEFINITIONA matrix with only one row is called a row matrix or a row vector.
EXAMPLE ( ) 0 1 5 is a row matrix, a 1 3 matrix or a row vector.
DEFINITIONA matrix with only one column is called a column matrix or a column vector.
EXAMPLE

,
`

.
|
1
2
3
is a column matrix, a 3 1 matrix or a column vector.
DEFINITIONAn n n matrix is called a square matrix of order n. We may write A
n n
as A
n
.
DEFINITIONA matrix with all elements equal zero is called a zero matrix and it will be denoted by
0
m n
or simply 0. We may write 0
n n
as 0
n
.
NOTEIf the order of a matrix A
m n
is known, we may omit the subscript and write A or we may write
( )
n m
ij
a

as
( )
ij
a
.
DEFINITIONTwo matrices A and B are said to be equal if they have the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal. In this case, we write A = B; otherwise, we write A B.
EXAMPLE If A =

,
`

.
|
7 6
5 4
and B =

,
`

.
|
+ +
+ +
5 2 3 3
3 2 3 1
, then A = B.
If A =

,
`

.
|
0
0
5
2
3
1
and B =

,
`

.
|
5 3
2 1
, then A B.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 2
B. Addition of Matrices
DEFINITIONThe sum of two m n matrices A =
( )
n m
ij
a

and B =
( )
n m
ij
b

is obtained by adding
corresponding elements. i.e. A + B =
( ) ( ) ( )
n m
ij ij
n m
ij
n m
ij
b a b a

+ +
.
EXAMPLE If A =

,
`

.
|
4
3
1
2
0
1
and B =

,
`

.
|

5
7
8
6
1
2
, then A + B =

,
`

.
|

9
10
9
8
1
1
.
THEOREM 1 (Commutative Law of Addition)
If A and B are matrices of the same order, then A + B = B + A.
PROOF
Let A =
( )
n m
ij
a

and B =
( )
n m
ij
b

. Then
A + B =
( ) ( )
n m
ij
n m
ij
b a

+
=
( )
n m
ij ij
b a

+
=
( )
n m
ij ij
a b

+
(commutative law of real numbers)
=
( ) ( )
n m
ij
n m
ij
a b

+
= B + A.
THEOREM 2 (Associative Law of Addition)
If A, B and C are matrices of the same order, then A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
THEOREM 3 A
m n
+ 0
m n
= 0
m n
+ A
m n
= A
m n
.
REMARK 0
m n
is called the additive identity element.
C. Scalar Multiplication
DEFINITIONLet be a real number (which is called a scalar) and let A =
( )
n m
ij
a

be a matrix. Then
A is defined as the matrix obtained by multiplying each of the elements of A by .
i.e. A =
( )
n m
ij
a

=
( )
n m
ij
a

.
In particular, when = 1, the matrix A is called the negative (or the additive inverse) of A.
EXAMPLE If A =

,
`

.
|
6
5
4
2
1
3
, then 4A =

,
`

.
|
24
20
16
8
4
12
and A =

,
`

.
|

6
5
4
2
1
3
.
REMARK A + (A) = (A) + A = 0.
PROPERTIES 1. ( + )A = A + A.
2. (A + B) = A + B.
3. (A) = ()A.
4. ()A = (A).
D. Subtraction of Matrices
DEFINITIONA B = A + (B).
EXAMPLE 1 A =

,
`

.
|
4
3
1
2
0
1
, B =

,
`

.
|
5
0
2
3
1
2
, then A B =

,
`

.
|


1
3
1
1
1
1
.
EXAMPLE 2 A =

,
`

.
|
0
3
1
0
2
1
, B =

,
`

.
|
1
0
0
0
0
1
, C =

,
`

.
|
1
7
2
4
5
3
.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 3
Then 2A 3B 5C =

,
`

.
|

8
41
12
20
21
16
.
E. Matrix Multiplication
DEFINITIONThe product of the m p matrix A =
( )
p m ik
a

and the p n matrix B =
( )
n p
kj
b

is defined
as the m n matrix AB =
( )
n m
ij
c

, where
pj ip j i j i
p
k
kj ik ij
b a b a b a b a c + + +

2 2 1 1
1
.
EXAMPLE 1 Find

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

9
10
8
6
7
5
2
4
0
3
1
2
.
EXAMPLE 2 Let A =( ) 3 1 2 , B =

,
`

.
|
4
5
6
. Find AB and BA.
EXAMPLE 3 Let A =

,
`

.
|
5
6
1
3
4
2
, B =

,
`

.
|

2
3
. Find AB and BA.
EXAMPLE 4 Rewrite the following system of linear equations as matrix multiplication:

'

+

9 3 5
28 2 8
y x
y x
.
REMARK The matrix

,
`

.
|
3 5
2 8
is usually called the coefficient matrix of the above system of
linear equations. In general, the matrix

,
`

.
|
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
is called the coefficient matrix of the
system

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
b z a y a x a
b z a y a x a
b z a y a x a
.
EXAMPLE 5 Let A =

,
`

.
|
1 0
1 1
. Show that A
n
=

,
`

.
|
1 0
1 n
where nN.
F. Properties of Matrix Multiplication
1. Matrix multiplication does not always follow commutative law.
e.g. Consider examples 2 and 3 of Section E.
2. Matrix multiplication does not always follow cancellation law.
(cancellation law: If ab = ac and a 0, then b = c.)
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 4
e.g. Consider A =

,
`

.
|
0 1
0 1
, B =

,
`

.
|
0 0
2 2
, C =

,
`

.
|
2 0
2 2
.
Then AB =

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
2 2
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 1
0 1
, AC =

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
2 2
2 2
2 0
2 2
0 1
0 1
.
i.e. AB = AC and A 0 but B C.
3. If AB = 0, A and B need not be 0.
e.g. Consider A =

,
`

.
|
2 6
1 3
, B =

,
`

.
|

9 3
3 1
. Then AB =

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
0 0
0 0
9 3
3 1
2 6
1 3
= 0
2
.
4. An n
th
degree equation may have more than n roots.
e.g. Consider the equation A
2
=

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
which is obviously an equation of second degree.
But

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
,

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
,

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
,

,
`

.
|

1 0
0 1
are the roots of this equation.
Furthermore, if x 0,

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
0
1
0
0
1
0
x
x
x
x
. i.e. A
2
=

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
has infinitely many
solutions.
5. A(BC) = (AB)C, associative law of multiplication.
6. A(B + C) = AB + AC; (A + B)C = AC + BC, distributive law.
7. A
m p
0
p n
= 0
m n
; 0
p n
A
n q
= 0
p q
.
8. (A)B = (AB).
9. (A)(B) = ()AB.
EXAMPLE Solve A
2
=

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
.
G. The Determinant of a Square Matrix
DEFINITIONThe determinant of a square matrix A is denoted by
A
or det A.
(a) A determinant of order 2 is defined as
2 2
1 1
b a
b a
= a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
.
(b) A determinant of order 3 is defined as
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
= a
1
b
2
c
3
+ a
2
b
3
c
1
+ a
3
b
1
c
2
a
3
b
2
c
1
a
2
b
1
c
3
a
1
b
3
c
2
..
REMARK We can use the following diagram to memorize the relation.
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
a
3
b
3
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 5

+ + +
EXAMPLE
7 4 ) 2 ( ) 5 ( 3
5 2
4 3


and
2 3 6 0 8 0 1
1 1 0
3 1 2
4 3 1
+ +
.
PROPERTIES
1. Interchanging rows and columns of a determinant would not alter the value of the determinant.
i.e.
a b c
a b c
a b c
a a a
b b b
c c c
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
.
2. Interchanging any two rows (or columns) of a determinant changes the sign of the
determinant without altering its numerical value.
e.g.
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
a b c
a b c
a b c
c b a
c b a
c b a

.
3. If every element of a row (or a column) of a determinant equals zero, the value of the
determinant will be zero, too.
e.g.
0
0
0
0
3 3
2 2
1 1

b a
b a
b a
.
4. If every element in any row (or column) is multiplied by the same factor, then the value of the
determinant would be multiplied by that factor.
e.g.
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
k
c kb a
c kb a
c kb a

.
NOTEIf A is a square matrix of order n, then det kA = k
n
det A.
e.g.
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
k
kc kb ka
kc kb ka
kc kb ka

. (c.f. the scalar multiplication of matrices)

= 2 5
1 4 3
1 4 3
1 4 3

= 2 5 3 4
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

= 120 (1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1) = 480.
5. If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical or proportional, the value of the
determinant must be zero.
e.g.
0
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1

a b a
a b a
a b a
k
ka b a
ka b a
ka b a
.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 6
PROOF
By (b), interchanging the identical columns, we have = . = 0.
6. A determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants by expressing every
element in any row (or column) as the sum of two terms.
e.g.
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
'
'
'
'
'
'
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a a
c b a a
c b a a
+
+
+
+
.
7. A determinant is unaltered by adding to the elements of any rows (or columns) k times the
corresponding elements in any other row (column).
e.g.
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b kb a
c b kb a
c b kb a
c b a
c b a
c b a
+
+
+

.
PROOF
By using the result of properties 5 and 6.
EXAMPLE 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
102 101 100
104 103 102
1 1 1
102 101 100
104 103 102
103 102 101
102 101 100
3 1 2 1
R R R R + +

= 0.
EXAMPLE 3 Show that
3 2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2
1
1
1
c c
b b
a a
c c ab
b b ca
a a bc

.
8. The determinant of the product of two square matrices of the same order is equal to the
product of the determinants of the matrices.
i.e.
B A AB
.
PROOF FOR n = 2
Let A =

,
`

.
|
22 21
12 11
a a
a a
and B =

,
`

.
|
22 21
12 11
b b
b b
.
Then
AB
=
22 22 12 21 21 22 11 21
22 12 12 11 21 12 11 11
22 21
12 11
22 21
12 11
b a b a b a b a
b a b a b a b a
b b
b b
a a
a a
+ +
+ +

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
=
22 22 21 22
22 12 21 12
12 21 21 22
12 11 21 12
22 22 11 21
22 12 11 11
12 21 11 21
12 11 11 11
b a b a
b a b a
b a b a
b a b a
b a b a
b a b a
b a b a
b a b a
+ + +
=
22 22
12 12
22 21
21 22
11 12
21 12
22 21
12 11
22 11
21 21
11 11
12 11
a a
a a
b b
a a
a a
b b
a a
a a
b b
a a
a a
b b + + +
=
( )
21 12 22 11
22 21
12 11
21 12
22 21
12 11
22 11
b b b b A
a a
a a
b b
a a
a a
b b
=
B A
.
(1) Factorization of Determinant
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 7
EXAMPLE 1 Factorize the Vandermondes determinant
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
.
SOLUTION (Method 1)
) )( )( (
1 1
) )( (
1 0 0 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3
1 2
a c c b b a
c b b a
c b b a
c c b b a
c c b b a
c b a
c b a
C C
C C

+ +



+
+
which is cyclic symmetric.
SOLUTION (Method 2)
Let f (a, b, c) = . f (a, b, c) is cyclic expression.
f (b, b, c) =
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b b
c b b
= 0. (a b) is a factor.
f (a, b, c) is a cyclic symmetric,
(b c), (c a) are also factors of f (a, b, c).
f (a, b, c) = k(a b)(b c)(c a) for some constant k.
Comparing coefficient of bc
2
, k = 1.
f (a, b, c) = (a b)(b c)(c a).
REMARKS 1. An expression of several variables is said to be homogeneous if all its terms are
of the same degree. e.g. x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
.
2. An expression of two or more variables is said to be symmetrical in these
variables when it is unaltered by the interchange of any two of the variables.
e.g. x + y + z, xy + yz + zx.
3. An expression of x, y and z is said to be cyclic symmetric if it is unaltered when
changing x into y, y into z and z into x simultaneously.
e.g. (xy)(yz)(zx).
EXAMPLE 2 Factorize
b a c
a c b
c b a
.
SOLUTION
b a c
a c b c b a
b a c
a c b
c b a c b a c b a
b a c
a c b
c b a
R R R
1 1 1
) (
3 2 1
+ +
+ + + + + +

+ +
= (a + b + c)(a
2
b
2
c
2
+ bc + ac + ab).
EXAMPLE 3 Factorize
(a)
a b c
a b c
bc ca ab
2 2 2
, (b)
3
3
3
1
1
1
c c
b b
a a
, (c)
3 2
3 2
3 2
1
1
1
c c
b b
a a
, (d)
3 2
3 2
3 2
1
1
1
c ab c
b ca b
a bc a
+
+
+
.
(2) Minor and Cofactor
DEFINITIONIf A is a square matrix, the minor of an element of A is det B, where B is the submatrix
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 8
obtained from A by deleting the row and column that contain the element.
EXAMPLELet A =

,
`

.
|
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
. Then the minor of a
2
is
1 3 3 1
3 3
1 1
c b c b
c b
c b

while the minor of b
2
is
1 3 3 1
3 3
1 1
c a c a
c a
c a

.
DEFINITIONIf A is a square matrix and M
ij
is the minor of an element a
ij
of A, then the cofactor of a
ij
is
defined as A
ij
= (1)
i+j
M
ij
.
EXAMPLELet A =

,
`

.
|
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
. Then the cofactor of a
2
is
1 3 3 1
3 3
1 1 1 2
) 1 ( c b c b
c b
c b
+
+
while the
cofactor of b
2
is
1 3 3 1
3 3
1 1 2 2
) 1 ( c a c a
c a
c a

+
.
THEOREM 1 The value of a determinant is equal to the sum of the product of the elements of any
row (or column) and their corresponding cofactors.
EXAMPLE

n
j
ij ij
A a A
1
.
PROOF
a b c
a b c
a b c
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
= a
1
b
2
c
3
a
1
b
3
c
2
+ a
2
b
3
c
1
a
2
b
1
c
3
+ a
3
b
1
c
2
a
3
b
2
c
1
= a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) a
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) + a
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
= a
1
A
1
+ a
2
A
2
+ a
3
A
3
.
THEOREM 2 The sum of the products of the elements of any row (or column) and the
corresponding cofactors of another row (or column) is zero.
EXAMPLE
0
1

n
j
jk ik
A a
when i j.
EXAMPLE 1
17 5
8 3
0
25 7
8 3
2
25 7
17 5
0
25 0 7
17 2 5
8 0 3
+
= 2(75 56) = 38.
EXAMPLE 2
7 1
17 1
13
7 13
17 13
3 4 1
7 13 0
17 13 0
3 4 1
2 1 3
5 3 4
2 3
1 3
3
4

+
+
R R
R R
= 13(7 17) = 130.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 9
EXAMPLE 3 Solve for x where b 0, c 0, b c,
c c a c
b b a b
x x a x
2 3 3
2 3 3
2 3 3

= 0.
(3) Cramers Rule
Consider the system of linear equations

'

+
+
2 2 2
1 1 1
c y b x a
c y b x a
.
Let
2 2
1 1
b a
b a

. Then
x
C yC
b c
b c
b y b x a
b y b x a
b x a
b x a
x
+
+

+
2 2
1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2
1 1
1 2
, say.
if 0, then x =

x
. Similarly, y =

y
.
EXAMPLE 1 Solve

'

+

9 3
4 2
y x
y x
.
SOLUTION
Since =
2 1
1 3

= 7,
x
=
4 1
9 3

= 21,
y
=
2 4
1 9
= 14. x = 21 7 = 3 and y = 14 7 = 2.
The above method was formulated in the following two theorems which are named after the
mathematician G. Cramer (1704-1752).
THEOREM 1 (Cramers Rule in order 2)
Suppose A =

,
`

.
|
22 21
12 11
a a
a a
, B =

,
`

.
|
2
1
b
b
, X =

,
`

.
|
y
x
and
A
0. Then the system

'

+
+
2 22 21
1 12 11
b y a x a
b y a x a
has a
unique solution such that x =
22 21
12 11
22 2
12 1
a a
a a
a b
a b
and y =
22 21
12 11
2 12
1 11
a a
a a
b a
b a
.
THEOREM 2 (Cramers Rule in order 3)
Suppose A =

,
`

.
|
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
, B =

,
`

.
|
3
2
1
b
b
b
, X =

,
`

.
|
z
y
x
and
A
0.
Then the system

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
b z a y a x a
b z a y a x a
b z a y a x a
has a unique solution such that
x =
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
33 32 3
23 22 2
13 12 1
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a b
a a b
a a b
, y =
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
33 3 31
23 2 21
13 1 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
a b a
a b a
a b a
and
z =
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
3 32 31
2 22 21
1 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
b a a
b a a
b a a
.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 10
EXAMPLE 2 Solve

'

+ +
+
+ +
15 2 2 5
7 2 3
6
z y x
z y x
z y x
.
EXAMPLE 3 Given the system of equations

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
2 2 2 2
1
d z c y b x a
d cz by ax
z y x
. Find the condition that the
system has a unique solution. Solve the system under such condition.
REMARK If
A
= 0, the system may have infinitely many solutions or has no solution.
e.g. 1 (t, t, 3t), where tR, are the solutions of

'

+
+
0 2 5
0 7 4
0 2
z y x
z y x
z y x
.
e.g. 2 The system

'

+
+
8 3 3
5 2 2
y x
y x
has no solution.
(We shall study how to solve the systems of the above types in the next chapter.)
H. The Identity Matrix
DEFINITIONA square matrix I
n
is called the identity matrix of order n if I
n
=
( )
n n
ij

where

'

n j i j i
j i
ij
,..., 2 , 1 , for if 0
if 1

. i.e. I
2
=

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
, I
3
=

,
`

.
|
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
.
THEOREM If A is an m n matrix, then AI
n
= I
m
A = A.
PROOF
Let A =
( )
n m
ij
a

, I
n
=
( )
n n
ij

. Then AI
n
=
( )
n m ni in i i i i
a a a

+ + +
2 2 1 1
=
( )
n m
ji ij
a

(As
jj
= 0 if i j)
=
( )
n m
ij
a

. (As
jj
= 1)
Similarly, I
m
A = A.
EXAMPLE If I =

,
`

.
|
1 0
0 1
, find all 2 2 matrices X such that X
2
4X + 3I = 0.
I. Special Types of Matrices
1. Transpose of a Matrix
DEFINITIONThe transpose of a matrix A, denoted by A
t
, is the matrix obtained by interchanging rows
and columns of A.
EXAMPLE A =

,
`

.
|
4
0
5
3
1
2
, then A
t
=

,
`

.
|
4
3
0
1
5
2
.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 11
PROPERTIES 1. (A + B)
t
= A
t
+ B
t
.
2. (AB)
t
= B
t
A
t
.
3. det (A
t
) = det A if A is a square matrix.
DEFINITIONA is a square matrix. A is called symmetric if A
t
= A. A is called skew-symmetric if A
t
=
A.
2. Cofactor Matrix
DEFINITIONThe cofactor matrix of a square matrix A is a matrix whose elements are the
corresponding cofactors of A and is denoted by cof A.
EXAMPLE A =

,
`

.
|
2 0 3
1 2 0
0 1 2
. cof A =

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+ +
+
+ +
4 2 1
3 4 2
6 3 4
2 0
1 2
1 0
0 2
1 2
0 1
0 3
1 2
2 3
0 2
2 0
0 1
0 3
2 0
2 3
1 0
2 0
1 2
.
3. Adjoint Matrix
DEFINITIONThe adjoint matrix of a square matrix A is defined as adj A = (cof A)
t
.
EXAMPLE A =

,
`

.
|
2 0 3
1 2 0
0 1 2
, adj A =

,
`

.
|

4 3 6
2 4 3
1 2 4
.
4. Diagonal Matrix
DEFINITIONA square matrix whose elements are such that a
ij
= 0 for i j is called a diagonal matrix.
NOTEAn identity matrix is a diagonal matrix.
PROPERTIES 1. If D =

,
`

.
|
b
a
0
0
, then

,
`

.
|

n
n
n
b
a
D
0
0
for nN.
2. If D =

,
`

.
|
c
b
a
0 0
0 0
0 0
, then

,
`

.
|

n
n
n
n
c
b
a
D
0 0
0 0
0 0
for nN.
5. Involutory Matrix
DEFINITIONA square matrix A is said to be involutory iff A
2
= I.
6. Idempotent Matrix
DEFINITIONA square matrix A is said to be idempotent iff A
2
= A.
7. Nilpotent Matrix
DEFINITIONA square matrix A is said to be nilpotent of order n iff there exists least positive integer n
such that A
n
= 0.
EXAMPLE 1 (Vision Algebra P.275 Ex.10.2 Q.7)
EXAMPLE 2 (Vision Algebra P.287 Ex.10.3 Q.7)
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 12
J. The Inverse of a Matrix
DEFINITIONSuppose A and B are two square matrices of the same order and AB = BA = I, then B is
said to be the inverse of A. We denoted the inverse of A as A
1
. i.e. AA
1
= A
1
A = I.
NOTENot all matrices have inverses.
e.g.1 As A 0 = 0 A = 0 for any square matrix A, the zero square matrix does not have
any inverse
e.g.2 Consider A =

,
`

.
|
0 0
0 1
, X =

,
`

.
|
d c
b a
. Then AX =

,
`

.
|
0 0
b a
.
No matter for what values of the elements of X we choose, AX I.
A does not have any inverse.
THEOREM 1 If A is a square matrix and has an inverse, then the inverse must be unique.
PROOF
Let B and C be two inverses of A.
Then, by definition, we have AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I.
Now, B = IB = (CA)B = C(AB) = CI = C which shows the inverse being unique.
THEOREM 2 A is a square matrix. (a) If
A
0, then A
1
exists and
A
A
A adj
1
1

.
(b) If
A
= 0, then A does not have any inverse.
Hence, A
1
exists if and only if
A
0.
PROOF FOR n = 3
(a) Let A =

,
`

.
|
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
and adj A =

,
`

.
|
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
C C C
B B B
A A A
. If
A
0, then
A
1
is well-defined.
Now,

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1
adj
1
C C C
B B B
A A A
c b a
c b a
c b a
A
A
A
A
=

,
`

.
|
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
C c B b A a C c B b A a C c B b A a
C c B b A a C c B b A a C c B b A a
C c B b A a C c B b A a C c B b A a
A
=

,
`

.
|
A
A
A
A
0 0
0 0
0 0
1
= I
3
(By theorems 1 and 2 of Section G(2))
Similarly,
A A
A

,
`

.
|
adj
1
= I
3
. i.e. A
1
=
A
A
adj
1
.
(b) If
A
= 0 and suppose A
1
exists, then AA
1
= A
1
A = I
I AA
1
I A A
1
I = 0 as A = 0.
However, the above result is absurd as
1 I
. Therefore, A
1
cannot exist if
A
= 0.
DEFINITIONA is a square matrix. A is said to be invertible if there exists an inverse for A; otherwise,
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 13
A is said to be not invertible.
DEFINITIONA is a square matrix. A is said to be non-singular if
A
0; otherwise, it is said to be
singular.
NOTEBy theorem 2, we conclude that A is invertible if and only if A is non-singular.
EXAMPLE 1 Show that

,
`

.
|
4 2
10 5
is not invertible.
EXAMPLE 2 Find the inverse of A =

,
`

.
|
10 7
4 3
.
REMARK If A =

,
`

.
|
d c
b a
, then

,
`

.
|

a c
b d
bc ad
A
1
1
.
EXAMPLE 3 Find the inverse of A =

,
`

.
|
2 0 3
1 2 0
0 1 2
.
THEOREM 3 A is a square matrix. If
A
0 and AB = AC, then B = C.
(i.e. AB = AC follows cancellation law if A is invertible.)
PROOF
B = (A
1
A)B = A
1
(AB) = A
1
(AC) = (A
1
A)C = C
THEOREM 4 If A and B are invertible square matrices of the same order, then (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
PROOF
Since (AB)(B
1
A
1
) = A(BB
1
)A
1
= AIA
1
= AA
1
= I. Similarly, (B
1
A
1
)(AB) = I.
(AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
THEOREM 5 For any non-singular matrix A, (a) (A
1
)
1
= A.
(b) (A)
1
=
1
A
1
where 0.
(c) (A
n
)
1
= (A
1
)
n
where nN.
(d) (A
t
)
1
= (A
1
)
t
.
(e)
1
1

A A .
PROOF (exercises)
K. Applications
EXAMPLE 1 Solve the system of linear equations

'

+

9 3 5
28 2 8
y x
y x
.
SOLUTION
Rewrite the system as

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
9
28
3 5
2 8
y
x
(*)
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 14
Note that
3 5
2 8
= 34 0 and

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

8 5
2 3
34
1
3 5
2 8
1
.
Multiply the inverse to both sides of (*), we have

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

9
28
34
8
34
5
34
2
34
3
3 5
2 8
34
8
34
5
34
2
34
3
y
x

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
2
3
y
x
.
i.e. the solution is x = 3 and y = 2.
EXAMPLE 2 Without finding out the values of z and w, find the values of x and y in the system

'

+
+
+
+
4 4
7 7 2
2
w z
w z
w y x
z y x
.
EXAMPLE 3 Solve the system

'

+ +

+
1 3 2
1 2 2
2
z y x
z y x
z y x
.
DEFINITIONThe following system of linear equations is called a system of homogeneous linear
equations.
(*)

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
0
0
0
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
z c y b x a
z c y b x a
z c y b x a
.
Then x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 is called the trivial solution (or the zero solution) of the above system (*). If
there exists x
0
, y
0
, z
0
, not all zero, such that (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is a solution of (*), then (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is called a
nontrivial solution (or a non-zero solution) of (*).
EXAMPLE (6, 1, 2) is a nontrivial solution of

'

+

0 10 2
0 5 4
0 7 4 3
z y x
z y x
z y x
.
THEOREM The system (*) has a nontrivial solution if and only if the coefficient matrix

,
`

.
|
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
is singular.
PROOF
only if Let A =

,
`

.
|
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
be non-singular. i.e. A
1
exists.
Then

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
A
z
y
x
z
y
x
A
.
Hence, (0, 0, 0) is the only solution to (*).
if the system has a nontrivial solution, A must be singular.
Algebra: Chapter 10 Matrices and Determinants Page 15
if Assume A is singular. i.e. = determinant of A = 0.
If at least one cofactor A
ij
0, by the properties of determinant,
x = A
11
, y = A
12
, z = A
13
or
x = A
21
, y = A
22
, z = A
23
or
x = A
31
, y = A
32
, z = A
33
are the solutions of the system of equations.
If every cofactor A
ij
= 0, we can note that A
11
= A
12
= A
13
= 0
a
2
: b
2
: c
2
= a
3
: b
3
: c
3
and so on.
all cofactors = 0 a
1
: b
1
: c
1
= a
2
: b
2
: c
2
= a
3
: b
3
: c
3
.
Hence the left-hand sides of the given equations are proportional, so their solution are
just those of one equation say a
1
x +b
1
y + c
1
z = 0 .
If a
1

0, a solution is x = b
1
, y = a
1
and z = 0.
If a
1
= b
1
= c
1
= 0, we can take x, y and z arbitrarily.
EXAMPLE 4 Find all the values of k if the following system has nontrivial solutions
4 3
3 7 2
2 3
x y z kx
x y z ky
x y z kz
+ +
+ +
+ +

'

.
<END>