AN ANALYSIS OF THE CEMETERIES FROM THE 10th AND 11th CENTURIES IN BRÂNDUŞEI STREET, ALBA IULIA (GYULAFEHÉRVÁR, KARLSBURG). NEW THEORIES ON THE MIGRATION OF PEOPLE IN TRANSYLVANIA IN THE 10th–11th CENTURIES. In: Măgureanu, A.–Gáll, E. București, 2010, 297‒336.

Gáll Erwin

AN ANALYSIS OF THE CEMETERIES FROM THE 10th AND 11th CENTURIES IN BRÂNDUŞEI STREET, ALBA IULIA (GYULAFEHÉRVÁR, KARLSBURG). NEW THEORIES ON THE MIGRATION OF PEOPLE IN TRANSYLVANIA IN THE 10th–11th CENTURIES. In: Măgureanu, A.–Gáll, E. București, 2010, 297‒336.

Abstract
AI

This research delves into the 10th and 11th-century cemeteries located in Brânduşei Street, Alba Iulia, focusing on how these findings illuminate migration patterns and cultural changes in Transylvania during the early Middle Ages. The study emphasizes the significance of burial customs and material culture as reflections of demographic shifts and enculturation processes, drawing connections between archeological data and historical contexts to draw new theories about the region's population dynamics.

Figures (27)

°6 Our system follows the one published in an earlier study of ours. See: Gall 2004-2005, Fig. 9.

Christianity’’. Therefore we have tried to chart the frequency and the dating of the five main types of the positions of the forearms. Fig. 3. The groups created during the categorisation of the positions of the forearms.

Fig. 4: The quantitative categorisation of the groups of different positions of the forearms.

Fig. 5. Burials with oboluses in the cemetery in Brandusei Street-Alba Iulia.

a ‘There was only one case when an anthropological analysis was carried out in the grave at 55 Brandusei Street-Alba Iulia, in which a female skeleton was found. In the rest of the graves the sex of the skeletons is not known, according to their height, they can be divided into an adult group and a child group. According to the map of the cemetery, it is clear that burials with earthenware furnishings have been discovered mainly in the southern group of graves, which date from the 10" century, in that part no grave has been found with furnishings characteristic of the 11" century, the early Arpad era. The latest dug graves with earthenware furnishings were graves 107, 155, 157 and 189, in their neighbourhood graves from the Arpad era were found with elements of the material culture characteristic of the Arpad era, but deriving from the second half of the 11" century. So the above mentioned graves should all be dated to the pagan 10" century. In the parts of the cemetery dated to the 11" century the earthenware pots, representing food and drink, have not been found. According to the above mentioned 11 positions, it can be stated that the pottery containing the food or drink was placed near the skull (three cases: graves 9, 12 and 29), near the pelvis (two cases: graves 28 and 189), near the thighs (two cases: graves 15—16), and near the shinbones (five cases: graves 13, 46, 106, 155 and 157). It is important that the earthenware pots placed near the shinbones, were put between the shinbones or next to the left shinbone. For lack of anthropological analyses we don't know whether the pottery grave furnishings had any gender characteristics. rt 1 . 1 1 ms . = yf a. me pe

Fig. 7. The quantities of different hair-rings according to their types and the materials they were made of.

with rectangular cross-section, with S-shaped ends (5a); Gytirlal — open wire ring (1a); H8 — Andrew I’s (1046-1060) coin of H8 type; H/ — Saint Stephen’s (1001-1038) coin of H1 type; Gyiir5a — simple strap ring without ornaments with its ends bent on each other (5a); Nyakp2 — twisted neck lets (2); Gytirlb — braided string finger ring with hammered ends (1b); Gyiirlc — braided open finger ring (1c); Gyiir2a — wire finger ring with rectangular cross-section (2a); H6 — Péter Orseold’s (1038-1041, 1044-1046) coin of H6 type; Gyiirla2 — open wire ring (1a2); Karp2d — Wire cast bracelet with rectangular cross-section (2d); Haj5c — grooved hair-rings with S-shaped ends (5d); Csdérgé — rattle; Haj5a — Simple hair rings with S- shaped, flat ends (4a); H/2 — Béla I’s (1060-1063) coin of H12 type; H/4 — Salamon’s (1063-1074) coin of H14 type ee ee eee eee Apart from some quite general products of fashion (simple hair-rings, string finger rings) completely in the 11" century. It is important that in the 11" century -emetery the items of the new, 11" century material culture appear (hair-rings with S-shaped ends, braided 1ew elements appear in the material culture and twisted rings with rhomboid and octagona ‘ound that are characteristic of the 10" cen cross-sections). Along with them, in three cases objects were ury material culture of the Hungarians of the time of the Conquest, mainly in a secondary role, these are completely unknown in the 10" century graves. In all the hree cases they were found in child graves: in of robe pendant and in grave 204 the shards of grave 129 re-used belt ornaments, in grave 145 the upper part of a collar ornament were found he upper part together with he ornament buttons. In our opinion these furnishings in the child graves may indicate an immigration from he west. It can be presumed that that the ske 11'" century and whose furnishings are partly present 11" century immigrants. Whether the p ry g etons of core I, which are dated from the first d identical to those of the Hungarians of the 10" srigin or there was a parallel change in fashion and identity is an open question, which canno ‘esponsibly based only on archaeological evid ualysis of the finds. We suppose that part of mother population also appeared whose ma dungarians of the time of the Conquest in the Great Plain*’. ecades of the century, may se items indicate a completely new population of different be answered ence, it can only be answered after a comparative DNA he population stayed in the same place (cemetery core II) but erial culture shows close connections with that of the

Pl. 8. The typology of the finds in the parts of cemeteries in Brandusei street-Alba Iulia: types of beads, knives, strike-a-lights. flint stones, cloth and shirt ornaments, buckles and rings.

Key takeaways

In contrast with them, the graves excavated between 2004 and 2008 are more concentrated, more densely situated showing evidence of a different type of cemetery order, most graves were excavated from these types of graves.
Mitrea 1989, p. 145-219;Toropu, Stoica 1972, p. 163-175;Mitrea 1988, p. 91-139;Szőke, Vándor 1983, p. 69-86;Tentiuc 2004, p. 323-329. 22 Gáll 2008, II. p. 76-78. The 24 graves with E-W orientation in the part of the Alba Iulia cemetery represent a unique cultural group, because at present such a big group of graves with inverse orientation in the 10 th century Hungarian territory is unknown elsewhere.
According to the chart of the cemetery, graves 155 and 157 date from the 10 th century too.
The knives found in graves 6-7, and 17 were found in parts of the cemetery dating from the second half of the 10 th century, graves 124 and 128 may date from the turn of the century whereas grave 137 is dated back to the beginning of the 11 th century by an H1 coin of Stephen I, which means that certain elements of the pagan burial customs still lingered in the 11 th century.
The parts of the cemetery excavated in 2005 (graves 58-92) date from the middle or the second half of the 11 th century along with the child grave found in superposition (grave 105).

- ÎNTRE STEPĂ ŞI IMPERIU ZWISCHEN DER STEPPE UND DEM REICH BETWEEN THE STEPPE AND THE EMPIRE Studii în onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu Archäologische Studien für Radu Harhoiu zum 65. Geburtstag Archeological Studies in honour of Radu Harhoiu at 65th Anniversary ÎNTRE STEPĂ ŞI IMPERIU ZWISCHEN DER STEPPE UND DEM REICH BETWEEN THE STEPPE AND THE EMPIRE Studii în onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu Archäologische Studien für Radu Harhoiu zum 65. Geburtstag Archeological Studies in honour of Radu Harhoiu at 65th Anniversary Volum îngrijit de Herausgegeben von Edited by Andrei Măgureanu – Erwin Gáll Institutul de Arheologie „Vasile Pârvan” Renaissance Bucureşti 2010 ÎNTRE STEPĂ ŞI IMPERIU ZWISCHEN DER STEPPE UND DEM REICH BETWEEN THE STEPPE AND THE EMPIRE Studii în onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu Archäologische Studien für Radu Harhoiu zum 65. Geburtstag Archeological Studies in honour of Radu Harhoiu at 65th Anniversary Volum îngrijit de / Herausgegeben von / Edited by Andrei Măgureanu – Erwin Gáll Editura Renaissance 2010 www.editurarenaissance.ro (Editură recunoscută C.N.C.S.I.S.) Director: Sorin Alexandru ŞONTEA Telefon/fax: 031.808.91.97/0744.652118 E-mail: sorinsontea@rdslink.ro Tehnoredactare / der Umbruck / Layout Andrei Măgureanu Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României Între step şi imperiu. Studii în onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu Editori: Andrei Măgureanu, Erwin Gáll Bucureşti, Editura Renaissance, 2010 ISBN 978-973-8922-77-8 I. Andrei Măgureanu II. Erwin Gáll 904 (498-22) Institutul de Arheologie „Vasile Pârvan”, str. Henri Coandă, nr. 11, Bucureşti, e-mail: iab_vparvan@yahoo.com © 2010 Institutul de Arheologie „Vasile Pârvan” ISBN 978-973-8922-77-8 ÎNTRE STEP ŞI IMPERIU ZWISCHEN DER STEPPE UND DEM REICH BETWEEN THE STEPPE AND THE EMPIRE CUPRINS / INHALT / CONTENTS Victor Spinei Ipostază aniversară: Radu Harhoiu / Hypostase anniversaire: Radu Harhoiu....................................... IX Radu Harhoiu Lucrări ştiinţifice / Wissenschaftliche Beiträge / Scientific works........................................................ XV Tabula Gratulatoria.............................................................................................................................. XXI STUDII / AUFSÄTZE / STUDIES Gheorghe Lazin, Robert Gindele Contribuţii la probleme legate de evoluţia ceramicii în epoca romană târzie şi în prima epocă a migraţiilor în bazinul Tisei superioare. Atelierele ceramice de la Lazuri (Lázári)-Râtul lui Béla........ 1 Florin Petrescu Cultura Sântana de Mureş-Cerneahov. Arheologie şi istorie................................................................. 41 Coriolan Horaţiu Opreanu Das Medaillon mit Masken von Şimleul Silvaniei (Szilágysomlyó). Ikonographische Präzisierungen und kulturelle Einflüsse..................................................................... 79 Péter Prohászka Der Fund von Bivolari/Bivola. Die Beigaben eines in Vergessenheit geratenen hunnenzeitlichen Fundes im Spiegel der Zeichnung von Géza Nagy.................................................... 111 Ján Rajtár, Jozef Zábojník Fragmente von hunnischen Kesseln in Iža............................................................................................. 119 Michel Kazanski Les Gépides en Gaule............................................................................................................................. 127 Daniela T nase Piese de aur din epoca migraţiilor în colecţia Muzeului Banatului din Timişoara................................ 141 Florin Curta Not “Slavic” after all: bow fibulae of Werner’s Class II A................................................................... 149 Ioan Stanciu Über die Herkunft oder die Beziehungen einiger Keramiktypen des Horizontes Lazuri-Pişcolt im nordwesten Rumäniens (ca. mitte des 6. – frühes 7. Jh.).......................................... 177 Eugen S. Teodor Handmade pottery from the Late Roman Fortress at Capidava............................................................. 211 Uwe Fiedler Die slawischen Bügelfibeln von Joachim Werners Gruppe I. Bemerkungen zum Forschungsstand unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Typs IC........................ 225 Andrei M gureanu Aşezarea de la Târgşoru Vechi. Pretext pentru unele consideraţii referitoare la cercetarea aşezărilor din secolele VI–VII dintre Carpaţi şi Dunăre................................................... 253 Bogdan Ciuperc Câteva observaţii privind depozitul de unelte descoperit la Ploieşti-Triaj (jud. Prahova)..................... 271 Bartłomiej Sz. Szmoniewski Axe-like iron bars in the Early Middle Ages from Central and Northern Europe. Some comments.... 289 Erwin Gáll An analysis of the Cemeteries from the 10th and 11th Centuries in Brânduşei Street, Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár, Karlsburg). New theories on the migration of People in Transylvania in the 10th-11th Centuries................................................................................................... 297 Oana Damian, Gabriel Vasile Vestigii arheologice descoperite pe dealul Dervent (jud. Constanţa).................................................... 337 Mihai Vasile Cizmă sau cană ? O piesă ceramică descoperită în situl de la Nufăru (jud. Tulcea)............................. 385 Adrian Ioniţ Grupuri de colonizări reflectate arheologic în Transilvania secolului al XII-lea................................... 389 Silviu Oţa Piese de orfevrărie de tradiţie bizantină în spaţiul nord-dunărean (secolul al XI-lea – începutul secolului al XIII-lea)............................................................................... 401 Abrevieri / Abkürzungen / Abbreviations............................................................................ 435 AN ANALYSIS OF THE CEMETERIES FROM THE 10th AND 11th CENTURIES IN BRÂNDUŞEI STREET, ALBA IULIA (GYULAFEHÉRVÁR, KARLSBURG). NEW THEORIES ON THE MIGRATION OF PEOPLE IN TRANSYLVANIA IN THE 10th–11th CENTURIES Erwin Gáll Geographically, the Transylvanian Basin is completely separated from the Carpathian Basin. The Transylvanian Basin ranges between the South-East Carpathians and the Transylvanian Carpathians. It extends from the Bukovina Alps, from the Alps of Maramureş, from the valley of the Upper Tisza and from the river-head of river Suceava to the valley of the Danube at the Iron Gate. It spreads in a semicircular arch. In the western region of this vast geographical unit rises the Transylvanian Mountain Range (its Romanian name is Western Alps), and to the south the mountains of Banat are to be found. The region is open to the west at two locations: through a narrow passage along the river Mureş and a wider passage along the river Someş. Moreover the Carpathian range is dissected by saddles and gorges in the north-east and in the south (e.g.: Radna and Bârgău saddle, Tulgheş, Bicaz, Ghimeş, Bodza gorges, Tatar saddle, Predeal gorge, Bran saddle, Turnu Roşu gorge). The Eastern Carpathians decrease in width towards the south: in the north it is 170 km, at Deda it is 100 km, at Târgu Secuiesc it is 90 km. Areas at the altitude of 500-1000 m are dominated by beech woods, at higher altitude, by pine woods, in the lower hills, mainly by oak-woods. Tracts of wooded steppe are found only in a small area on the Transylvanian Plain [in Hungarian: Mezőség] (north of Cluj) – and this is important when examining the 10th century. The basin is rich in rivers, its soil is rich in precious metal and salt. The necropolis, or to be more exact the cemeteries, in Brânduşei Street, Alba Iulia, have become wellknown due to the archaeologist colleagues in Alba Iulia (who published the material very quickly). At the moment this is the biggest published cemetery in the Transylvanian Basin from the 10th–11th centuries making it possible to study many cultural, sociological and population issues in the early Middle Ages. Its th importance is highlighted by the fact that both the burial customs and the material culture of the 10 –11th centuries can be studied, enabling such general observations as immigration, enculturation etc. 1.Topography of the cemeteries The necropolis was discovered on the south-eastern edge of the village, on the second terrace of the River Maros, on the right side of the county road leading towards Pâclişa (Poklos-DJ 107A). The necropolis is situated 1.5 kilometres south-west of the castle, which was in the centre of Alba Iulia. The excavations on the site of the necropolis are hindered by the fact that it lies under a built-in area (four plots are situated on the right side of Brânduşei Street and five are to be found on the right side of George Bacovia Street). The cemetery, discovered near Izvorul Împăratului, is to be found 700 metres south-west of this necropolis. 2. Stages of the excavations in the site This part of the cemetery of 229 graves has been excavated in several phases: in 1997, 24 graves were excavated under the supervision of Matei Drâmbărean (Gheorghe Ştef's property). It was followed by the excavation of 23 graves by Aurel Dragotă in 1999 (graves 25–47 – on Angela Groza's property), which was followed by the excavation of ten more graves (graves 48–57 – Mihai Ceuca's property). The excavations were resumed in 2004, which resulted in excavating 35 graves still in that year (graves 58–92 – Ioan Bodea's property). After this, 53 more graves were excavated in 2005 under the leadership of Aurel Dragotă, Gabriel Rustoiu and Valentin Deleanu (on the properties of Sorin Leahu and Flavius Bozdog). In 2006 new parts of the cemetery were excavated under the control of these three archaeologists (on the properties of Ioan Besoiu and Sorin Leahu). In the same year excavations were carried out in George Bacovia Street, which resulted in excavating 14 graves. In the next year a new part of the cemetery was excavated, this is the westernmost part 298 E. Gáll of the excavated parts of the cemetery (20 graves – Ioan Stan's property) and in 2008 18 more graves were excavated (on Floarea Mărginean's property). This important achievement was published in 2009 1 , but anthropological and other interdisciplinary researches were not carried out (Pl. 1). 3. On the extent of the parts of the cemetery (Pl. 1–4;8–12) Based upon its topographical situation, the burial customs and the items of material culture, the necropolis excavated in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia probably belonged to two cemeteries (see sections 6–7). The situation of the 232 skeletons from the 229 graves excavated in the nine parts of cemeteries allows us to conclude that the axis of the 10th century parts of cemeteries is northeast-southwest, whereas the 11th century necropolis lay in an east-west orientation. It can be an important observation that on the southern side the edge of the 10th century cemetery has been reached. The borders of the cemetery in other directions have remained unknown until now. Interpreting our cemetery maps (Pl. 1–4; 8–12) it can be observed that only 20% of the graves have been excavated so far at best. The width of the cemeteries in EW and NS directions is unknown for lack of data. It also has to be noted that the excavations could not be carried out in the most favourable circumstances because only partial excavations could be made on the properties owned by nine proprietors. Based on the map of the excavated parts of cemeteries, the two cemeteries might have covered about 200 metres in the NS direction. 4. Burial customs As it turns out later, it is a characteristic feature of the Alba Iulia parts of cemeteries that they differ from the classic 10th century Hungarian culture. We would like to analyse these aspects by archaeological methods. But some general words about the burial customs might prove to be useful beforehand. The burial customs are considered to be the most important features in the definition of the cultural horizon of the 10th century. The burial customs mainly reflect the emotional reactions of the family members, relatives and the community when someone passes away, and the most important condition that played a role in the quality and the quantity of the grave furnishings was the wealth of the individual, the family or the community, certainly in most cases it was closely related to the social status of the deceased 2 . It is expressed clearly with the quality and quantity of the ritual sacrifices, weapons, clothes and jewellery placed in the grave. We have to bear in mind that the quantity of the objects and sacrifices largely depends upon the political or economic situation in a region, the significance of the roads crossing it, or whether it is in a central or periphery situation and to all these the occasional foreign presents should be added, which are palpable in some cases and might indicate the political significance of a person or a family. The archeologically excavated grave contains the remains of a deceased person or people, but the furnishings found in the grave might be the representations of the prestige of the deceased person by the mourners and they can emphasize the importance of the family (too). It is quite understandable that the mourning community or family wants/wanted the deceased person to appear in shining glory when they escort/escorted him/her on their last way. So the 'furnishing parcel', found alongside the deceased person, was to indicate the economic potential, welfare, prestige, influence and power of the mourners and their legitimacy 3 and in consequence of this the social position or rank of the deceased person. Therefore it might be risky to see them as the concrete reflections of the mobile, frequently changing or stagnating social positions of individuals from different social groups but it is undeniable that there must have been a close relationship between them, although, at least in theory, it might not have prevailed into modern times. At the same time we should pay attention to another threat, namely that in the early middle Ages the graves without furnishings might not reflect a true picture of a whole civilization; they can represent a dynamically changing picture of the other world in a society. For instance, the Christian egalitarian conception of the other world, which led to unfurnished graves, did not mean that the Christian societies were poorer than their predecessors 4 . The first important feature of the burial customs in the 10th century Transylvanian Basin that at that time only inhumation burials are known in the studied region 5 . The cremation rite known in previous 1 Drâmbărean, Rodean, Gligor, Moga, Anghel 1997, p. 187–210; Dragotă, Brânda 2001, p. 289–318; Dragotă, Rustoiu, Deleanu, Cordoş, Crişan, Urian, Kudler 2005, p. 201–228; Dragotă, Rustoiu, Deleanu, Oţa 2009. 2 Härke 2000; Parker Pearson 2001. 3 Parker Pearson 2001, p. 196. 4 Rush 1941. 5 It is doubtful, as the time limits of the cremation burials in the Transylvanian Basin are not known because the scarcity of their finds prevents us from dating them exactly. In other regions of Central-east Europe burials of this kind can be documented until the beginning of the 11th century. Jażdżewski 1949, p. 91–191; Mi kiewicz 1969, p. 241–302. CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 299 centuries probably disappeared in the 9th century, or at least it cannot be detected due to the poor furnishing of these graves. 4.1. The geographical location of the parts of cemeteries and the layout of the cemeteries Our summarizing map shows that the clusters of the graves, discovered in different parts of Brandied Street, display different characteristics: the graves, discovered in the southernmost part of the cemetery towards the north with different orientations, are quite far apart from each other: graves 1–24 (1997), graves 25–47 (1999), graves 48–57 (2001), graves 93–130 (2006). In contrast with them, the graves excavated between 2004 and 2008 are more concentrated, more densely situated showing evidence of a different type of cemetery order, most graves were excavated from these types of graves. This fact seems to support the theory that we must count with two cemeteries. 4.2. The shape of the graves In the Alba Julia cemetery parts the shape of the graves (length, width) could mostly be determined by the excavating archaeologists, certainly the published drawings of the graves largely depend on the exactitude of the documentation. We have made an attempt to categorise the data that are at our disposal: 1. Graves with curved corners, wider at the head and narrower at the feet of the skeleton: graves 59, 66, 68, 72, 81, 89, 100, 103, 120, 144, 154–155, 157, 162, 170, 178, 200, 204–205, 213, 222. A–B, 223 and 227. 2. Graves with curved corners, narrower at the head and wider at the feet of the skeleton: graves 62, 64, 79, 84, 99, 105, 110, 116, 137, 150, 156, 159, 167, 176, 179–181, 184, 188, 193, 199, 224 and 228. 3. Graves oval shaped at the head with curved corners at the feet: graves 128, 149, 161, 186, 207. 4. A grave oval shaped at the feet with curved corners at the head: grave 191. 5. Graves with simply curved corners: graves 60, 63, 69–70, 73–74, 86, 88, 94, 96, 99, 102, 109, 111, 113–114, 118–119, 126, 133–134, 141, 155, 163–166, 168, 171–173, 175, 177, 182–183, 189, 192, 194–198, 201, 208, 210, 212, 214–218, 220–221, 225–226, 229 and 231. 6. Oval graves: graves 71–72, 77, 79, 106–107, 132, 135, 145, 151, 158 and 209. 7. Pentagonal graves: graves 108, 112 and 121. 8. Amorphous graves: graves 102, 115–125 and 145. It can be stated that in these cemetery parts, similarly to most necropolises from the 10th–11th centuries, the big graves of the time of the Great Migration are not to be observed. Most of the registered graves are simple ones with curved corners, in two variants. In two cases little children were laid in graves of much bigger size. 4.3. The depth of the graves The statistic registration of the depths of the graves is a problematic issue depending on how exactly the present day depths of the graves reflect their original deepness at the time when they were dug. The depths of 192 graves have been analysed from the cemetery parts in Alba Iulia, their average depth is 70.3 cm. It is important to note that there is no major difference between the depths of the 10th century graves and those from the 11th century. 4.4. The orientation of the graves. The problem of the graves with inverse orientation (Pl. 2) A large number of the graves excavated in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia are orientated W-E, with several different variants. In the cemetery parts dated from the 10th century a considerable number of the graves have been registered with inverse, E-W, orientation, in one case with N-S and in two cases with S-N orientation. In the southernmost part two of the six graves are oriented E-W, one S-N and only three W-E (graves 173–178), among the ten graves excavated to the north of them (graves 48–57) there were four with W-E (graves 48, 50–51 and 55) two with E-W (graves 53 and 56), one with N-S (grave 49) and one with S-N (grave 52) orientation. The cemetery parts excavated in 1997 and 1999 are more homogeneous in this aspect. Among graves 1–24 there are fourteen with W-E orientation (graves 1–4, 9, 12–13, 15, 17–19, 20–21 and 24.), eight with inverse, E-W orientation (graves 5–8, 14 and 22–23) and in two cases the exact direction of the skeleton could not be observed (graves 10–11). The picture of the cemetery part that was excavated in 1999 is even more balanced: out of the 23 graves 12 were oriented W-E (graves 26, 28–29, 31–32, 34, 37–38, 40, 42, 45 and 47) and in 11 cases the graves were oriented E-W (graves 25, 27, 30, 33, 35–36, 39, 41, 43–44 and 46). Among the groups of graves excavated between 2004 and 2008, which are dated to the 11th century based on coins from the early Árpád era found in them, almost exclusively W-E orientations are registered, there are only a few graves with E-W orientation on the southern and northern side of the 2006 excavations 300 E. Gáll (graves 103, 106, 109 and 120) but they are dated from the end of the 10th and the very beginning of the 11th centuries (see their chronological analysis later). In the parts further to the west, which were used by the 11th century community, this type of burial disappears. In accordance with this, in the cemetery parts excavated in 2004–2008, which are dated by coins to the time of Stephen I (1001–1038), Peter Orseolo (1038–1041, 1044–1046), Aba Sámuel (1041–1044), András I (1046–1060), Béla I (1060–1063), and Salamon (1063– 1074), all the graves are oriented W-E with only one exception, grave 210, which is oriented SSW-NNW. Therefore it can be firmly stated that the graves oriented E-W were discovered in the parts of cemetery dating from the 10th century, to be exact from the parts excavated in 1997, 1999 and 2001. All in all 32 of the 55 burials (58.18 %) were oriented W-E, 21 (38.18 %) E-W, one N-S and one S-N (1.81 %). In the George Bacovia section of this cemetery part, two more graves were excavated with inverse orientation (graves 159. and 184). From the period of the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries there are four graves with E-W orientation (graves 103, 106, 109 and 120) in later times this burial custom is not to be observed. It can be stated that the E-W, N-S and S-N orientations (within them the E-W orientation, which constitutes the biggest proportion) were found mostly in the parts of the cemetery dating from the 10th century, in later times this type of orientation, maybe tradition (?), is completely missing. Apparently, besides adult graves child graves were also oriented E-W. Unfortunately, for lack of anthropological analyses we can only make guesses about the possibility of the separation of sexes (which has been proved to have existed in some cemeteries in Poland) a working hypothesis. Graves 53 and 56 are child graves with inverse orientation. It can be seen that these two rites are very different from the burial rites of the Hungarian Conquest. So the question arises as to where similar burial rites can be found. A high percentage of graves with E-W orientation within one cemetery is known from the cemeteries of the late Avar period in the region east of the Tisa 6 , but their parallels both in age and in characteristics can be found in the Transylvanian cemeteries from the 8th–9th centuries and the cemeteries in the Lower Danube region from the 8th–10th centuries. Not only the E-W orientation can be registered in these cemeteries but different orientations like in the cemetery in Alba Iulia. In the Transylvanian Basin three of the 12 graves with skeletons were oriented east to west in Mediaş (25%), in Ocna Sibiului 14 of the 15 graves were oriented NE-SW, or NNE-SSW (93.33%), in Ghirbom the male grave 6 was oriented SE-NW, and in Juc E-W orientations were documented 7 . Unfortunately the orientation of the skeletons in the cemeteries in Berghin and Alba Iulia-Staţia de Salvare are not known but even in these cases some E-W, N-S and S-N orientations were recorded 8 . We have a lot more information from the northern regions of the Carpathian Basin: the last phase of the biritual cemetery in Nagygurab was dated to the first half of the 10th century based upon the rhomboid arrowheads, and the graves were oriented in all the four main directions, in Bešenova some irregularities were observed in the southern group of the graves, in the cemetery in Devin za kostolom only graves with skeletons are documented with different orientations 9 . In Bélapátfalva the S-N orientation is not known but there are graves with E-W, W-E and N-S orientation 10 . In Čakajovce, where the conquering Hungarians mixed with the Slavonic people a similar big proportion of the graves with E-W and N-S orientation can be observed and the relative proportion of the E-W and N-S orientations is similar to that of Alba Iulia 11 . Graves with E-W orientation from the 10th–11th centuries are known from several sites, but in bigger concentration they were found in Ibrány-Esbóhalom and Zalavár, where they form groups made up of several graves 12 . In Nyíregyháza-Kállai hill 5 or 6 skeletons are known with inversed orientation. In the 13 cemeteries examined by Sarolta Tettamanti only one skeleton was oriented inversely, in four cases two, in one case four and in another case three skeletons were oriented E-W. One inversely oriented grave is known both among the grave 7 in Eperjes-Takács tábla and the grave 30 in Tiszabercel-Ráctemető 13 . The grave of a 28–30 year-old woman with NE-SW orientation is also remarkable in Kunszentmárton 14 , also the grave 1 6 Lőrinczy 2001, p. 161–172. Protase 2004, p. 153–159; Horedt 1965, p. 7–23; information from Ioan Stanciu. 8 About the connections between Blandiana cemetery A and the Bulgarians of the Lower Danube region Stanko Stancev wrote the following lines: „Ich bin der Ansicht, dass die Ganze in Blândiana gefundene Gefässgruppe einer protobulgarischen Bevölkerung angehört.” Quoted by Horedt 1958, p. 120, 2. notes; Bóna 1988, p. 575. 9 Chropovsky 1957, p. 176–214; Kraskovska 1958, p. 423; Plachá, Hlavičová, Keller 1990, p. 70. 10 Szabó 1987, p. 83–98. 11 Reiholcová 1995. Taf. CXXXIII. 3, 6, Taf. CXXXVI. 4–5, Taf. CXXXVIII. 5, Taf. CXLII. 4–5, Taf. CXLIII. 1–2, Taf. CXLV. 1, Taf. CXLVI. 1, Taf. CXXXIV. 5, Taf. CXXXV. 1, Taf. CXLIV. 5. 12 Istvánovits 2003, p. 378; Tettamanti 1971, p. 216–244. 13 Bálint 1991, Abb. 17; Istvánovits 2003, p. 190, Fig. 114; Tettamanti 1975, p. 92, Tab. 1. 14 Dienes 1972, Fig. 54. 7 CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 301 from Dudeştii Vechi mound II 15 or the north-south oriented male tomb with sword in Szeghalom 16 . The graves with E-W, N-S and S-N orientation represent a huge proportion of the excavated 11th century cemeteries in the Lower Danube region. It is also an important observation that inverse orientations often appear together with stone or brick covering like with the graves oriented east to west in Alba Iulia. In the site of Istria-Capu Viilor the main types of orientations were N-S and E-W. In the biritual cemetery in Frăteşti 5 of the 8 graves with skeletons were oriented east to west, in the biritual cemetery in Izvoru one of the 444 graves (344 with skeletons, 100 cremation burials), 188 graves without furnishing were oriented east to west, and this type of orientation can be observed in 25 of the 95 graves in the biritual cemetery excavated near Obârşia Nouă and grave 134 was also oriented east to west in the cemetery in Sultana17 . In the cemeteries farther to the south in Bulgaria, four skeletons from three graves in Devnja cemetery 1 are oriented E-W, in the Kjulevca cemetery grave 84 is oriented E-W. A large number of graves with E-W orientation are known from the 10th–11th century cemetery in Pliska 18 . The area of Poland and Lithuania is special. In the territory of Poland cremation burials were customary until the end of the 10th century, from the late 10th– early 11th centuries they switched to skeleton burials, but the W-E orientation did not become common, they show a varied pattern. In some of the cemeteries orientations follow a certain rule: in the cemetery of Lutomiersk men were buried with E-W and women with W-E orientation. A similar example can be found in the cemetery of Końskie with 170 graves, where all the male graves were oriented E-W or NE-SW, and all the female graves W-E or NW-SE. In the cemetery of Sandomierz orientation cannot be connected to genders 19 . Similarly, graves with inverse orientation are documented in Eastern Lithuania, with the difference that men were buried with NW and women with SE orientation 20 . In the Alba Iulia cemetery there is a grave with N-S, and two graves with S-N orientation 21 , which is much more common in the 10th century cemetery in Moftinu Mic: here nine of the 13 graves were oriented N-S or NNW-SSE, so the N-S orientation was the main type 22 . Based upon these data we can thus confidently declare that graves with inverse E-W orientation were the results of a lack of rule in the orientation of the interred: it is one of the most significant cultural characteristics of the population that switched from cremation burials to skeleton burials in the 7th–9th centuries (along with the older, Avar burial type) therefore it is to be interpreted as an ethno-cultural feature that distinguishes them from the Hungarian Conquerors. The following conclusions can be drawn: 1. The parallels of the big irregularity (W-E, E-W, N-S, S-N) found in this cemetery, can be seen in the Transylvanian biritual cemeteries, and those in the Lower Danube region and in the biritual cemeteries in the northern part of the Carpathian Basin and in Western Hungary. The varied orientation in the biritual Transylvanian cemeteries may offer a solution to this problem (see Pl. 3). 2. Unfortunately, for want of anthropological analyses we cannot trace back whether the burials with inverse orientation could have indicated a separation of the genders as they did in the 9th–12th century cemeteries in Poland and Lithuania. It is important to note that E-W orientation can also be documented in child or adolescent graves in Brânduşei street – graves 5, 22B, 26–28, 30, 54 but the question of their sex has not been answered. The biggest concentration of the graves with inverse orientation in space and time occurred in the 8th– th 9 centuries. With Christianity spreading in the 11th century W-E orientation became common in the Transylvanian Basin; from that time on E-W orientation cannot be documented. Therefore, the groups of graves with E-W orientation in the 10th century are supposed to belong to a transitional period. 15 Gáll 2008, II. p. 26–27. Darnay 1905, p. 66–70. 17 Dolinescu-Ferche, Ionescu 1970, p. 419–430; Mitrea 1988, p. 91–139; Mitrea 1989, p. 145–219; Toropu, Stoica 1972, p. 163–188. 18 Dimitrov 1995, p. 42–70. 19 Jażdżewski 1949, p. 179; Gassovski 1950, p. 176; Marciniak 1960, p. 141–186; Mi kiewicz 1969, p. 300. 20 Luchtanas 2000, p. 202. 21 The N-S orientation is known in greater numbers from the cemeteries in the Lower Danube region. In the cemetery in Istria-Capu Viilor 14 graves were oriented N-S. There is a group of graves with N-S orientation in the above mentioned Izvoru cemetery, which is considered regular in this aspect. The graves excavated in Obârşia Nouă were mainly oriented N-S, but this orientation is not rare among the 134 graves in Sultana. In Bulgaria, in cemetery Devnja 1 40 of the 53 skeleton burials were oriented this way. In Varna 100% of the 17 graves are oriented in this direction. In Devnja cemetery 1 two graves are known, in cemetery 3 six with S-N orientation. In Istria-Capul Viilor there is only one grave, in Izvoru 234 with S-N orientation. This orientation is known from the graves in Zalakomár-Lesvári dülő, which date from the 8th–9th centuries and from Moldva, e. g. Moleşti). Mitrea 1989, p. 145–219; Toropu, Stoica 1972, p. 163–175; Mitrea 1988, p. 91–139; Szőke, Vándor 1983, p. 69–86; Tentiuc 2004, p. 323–329. 22 Gáll 2008, II. p. 76–78. 16 E. Gáll 302 The 24 graves with E-W orientation in the part of the Alba Iulia cemetery represent a unique cultural group, because at present such a big group of graves with inverse orientation in the 10th century Hungarian territory is unknown elsewhere. In the Alba Iulia cemetery only one coffin burial has been registered, in grave 19 a 180 cm tall adult was buried. This could have been wooden coffin put together from parts or carved from a tree trunk. 4.2.5. Burials with limestone, stone and brick coverings (Pl. 4) The graves with limestone, stone and brick coverings form another characteristic group of the Alba Iulia cemetery. There are 42 graves altogether, where stone or brick coverings or stones in or above the graves have been registered (graves 1, 5–6, 14, 17–18, 25, 28–30, 37–41, 43–45, 52, 55–59, 68–70, 75, 77, 81–82, 88, 93, 95, 102, 105, 109, 116, 119–120, 124, 138–139, 149, 152, 155–156, 158, 160, 179, 181, 187, 189, 208, 214, 217 and 219), which constitutes 24.89% of the 229 graves. The following systematic categories have been distinguished: 1. Stone or stones in the grave, probably with some ritual purpose 1. 1 Stone under the head of the deceased person: grave 25. 1. 2. Pieces of stone, limestone or brick in the soil of the grave: graves 28, 58–59, 69, 74–75, 88, 93, 102, 105, 119, 139 and 212. 1.3. A stone or a row of stones in one side of the grave: graves 59, 95, 138, 179, 214 and 217. 2. Stone structures on the whole surface of the grave. 2. 1. a. One big stone or limestone slab on the grave (perhaps with small crumblings): graves 14 23 , 17 24 , 29, 57, 130, 219. 2. 2. Two, three or four slabs of limestone on the grave: graves 18, 25, 37–39, 43–44, 52, 55–56, 109, 124 and 160 25 . 2. 3. Smaller or bigger crumbs of limestone slabs on the grave: graves 28, 30, 40–41, 45, 109, 120, 158, 181, 187, 189 and 208. 2. 4. Graves with stone coverings or covered with crumbled limestone slabs from the Roman times: grave 1. According to this categorisation it turns out that the grave coverings are mostly typical of the southern parts of the cemetery whereas stones in the graves, possibly with ritual purpose, were mainly found in the northern parts of the cemetery. Grave coverings were mainly typical of graves 1–48, which were excavated in 1997 and 1999; this burial type was registered in 15 cases. It is the main characteristic of the 10th century graves with stone coverings that in most cases the skeletons were buried with inverse, E-W orientation, graves (5–6, 14, 25, 29, 30, 41, 43–44, 52, 56, 109 and 120), which constitute 42.85% of the graves with limestone coverings. It is quite evident that these two phenomena are interconnected, but it cannot be general because in that part of the cemetery where the coins of the Árpád kings have been found we do not know of any graves with inverse orientation, whereas graves with stone coverings or stone constructions have been found here, although in smaller number. Here we have to make mention of the part of cemetery excavated in 2004 (on Ioan Bodea's property), which can be dated by the coins of Péter Orseolo and András, to the west of it, in the part which derives from an earlier period, this burial custom is unknown. For lack of anthropological analyses it is impossible to analyse whether this custom had any gender characteristics. In any case it is certain that in grave 55 a woman was buried and in graves 14, 30, 39, 56, 179, 212, 217 and 219 the skeletons of children have been registered, so this custom was practised in the case of children too. The proportion of sexes in the graves remains a question. Some skeletons are thought to have been males because of their lengths, in graves 17, 57, 71 and 76, 190, 186 and 180 cm long skeletons were found, which makes it highly likely that males were buried in these graves. Their density in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia allows us to consider this a main characteristic of the cemetery parts dating from the 10th century in Alba Iulia and an element of cultural continuity in the 11th century. It is a remarkable observation that stones placed in the graves with ritual purpose can mainly bee documented in the 11th century cemetery whereas the custom of stone coverings is to be found in graves from both centuries. 4.5. The position of the skeletons in the graves In most cases the deceased were laid in the graves lying on their back in a reclined position. There are some irregular cases registered: in grave 38 with legs drawn up, in 53 in frog position. 23 A slab of limestone. Its size: 1,85 X 1,40 X 0,30 m. 25 Length: 135 cms; width.: 50 cm; thickness: 28 cm. 24 CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 303 Double graves were registered in four cases: in graves 22. A–B, 149 A–B and 222 A-B an adult – a child (mother and child?) were found. In one case the little child was placed on the chest of the adult (grave 22 AB), in one case at the right foot (graves 106–107) in two cases they were placed next to the adult's head (in grave 149 to the left, in grave 222 to the right). Superposed graves, which may have chronological importance, were registered in three cases: grave 5 was dug on top of grave 6, grave 89 was found beneath grave 59, and grave 105 (in which a coin of Salamon was found) was dug on top of grave 119. The finds also suggest that these superposed graves indicate the edge of the two cemeteries. 4. 6. Position of the arm bones in the graves 26 The position of the arm bones can only be categorised in part based on the published documentations because in 87 cases we do not have any data on the position of the arm bones of the skeletons. In 142 cases the arm bones were registered in the following positions: 1. Alongside (position I): graves 1, 6, 8, 12, 16, 21, 25, 29, 30, 35–36, 40–42, 44, 61, 63, 65, 72, 86, 90–91, 95–96, 105–106, 108–109, 118–119, 127, 131–132, 138–140, 144, 149, 154, 158, 161–164, 173–176, 179, 181, 207, 212, 221–222. A and 231. 2. Right hand alongside the body, left hand is bent in right angle (position II): graves 70–71 and 206. 3.Left hand alongside the body, right hand is bent in right angle (position III): graves 34, 69, 88, 99, 169, 196 and 198. 4. Both hands are bent 10–20°, placed on the edge of the pelvis (position IV): graves 43, 57, 59, 64, 67–68, 77–79, 124, 126, 128, 150 and 159. 5.Right hand alongside the body, left hand is bent in 45° (position V): graves 19, 24, 37, 57, 75, 104, 160, 183, 192, 197 and 201. 6. Left hand alongside the body, right hand is bent in 45°, placed on the pelvis or on the other arm (position 6): graves 66, 80, 83, 87, 101, 133, 152 and 194–195. 7. Both arms placed on the collarbones or crossed approximately in 22–45° (position VII): graves 13, 47, 114 and 137. 8. Right hand bent on the chest in 45°, left hand is on the abdomen in 90° (position VIII.): grave 18. 9. Right hand is bent on the pelvic bone in 45°, left hand is also on the abdomen (position IX): graves 49, 125, 148 and 193. 10. Right hand on the pelvic bone in 45°, left hand on the chest in 45° (position X): grave 223. 11. Right hand is placed on the chest/collarbone, left hand is alongside of the body (position XI): graves 5, 45 and 55. 12. Right hand is bent outwards alongside of the body, left hand is bent on the chest (position XII): graves 28, 46, 60 and 184. 13. Arms crossed or in the lap (position XIII) graves 38, 48, 51, 135 and 191. 14. Arms crossed above the pelvic vertebrae or the cross bone, the hands are put together or left lying next to each other, or put on each other (position XIV): graves 3–4, 15, 20, 32, 52, 98, 111, 145, 155, 157, 171, 180, 182, 186, 199–200, 214–216. 60 Fig. 1. The frequency of the positions of the forearms. 55 50 40 30 20 9 4 1 3 4 5 0 0 0 Position XVII 1 Po sition XVI 4 3 Position XV 11 7 10 Position XII 14 Position XI 20 26 Po sition XIV Positio n XIII Positio n X Position IX Po sition VIII Position VII Position VI Positio n V Position IV Position III Positio n II Position I 0 Our system follows the one published in an earlier study of ours. See: Gáll 2004–2005, Fig. 9. 304 E. Gáll Fig. 2. The categories of the positions of the forearms. As can be seen in the chart, out of the 17 positions 14 are registered in the Alba Iulia cemetery, whose majority is made up of positions I and XIV. These positions of the forearms can be divided into five main categories: The positions of the forearms I, IV, V, VI fall into Group I. This position meant that the hands were placed alongside the body when the forearms can be placed on the pelvis or on the edge of it for different reasons. It could have been caused by the corpse having been wrapped in a shroud, or by displacements resulted from the decomposition of the body. 87 of the 139 cases belong to this group (62.58%). The positions of the arms II, III, IX and XV fall into Group II. In this case one arm is placed alongside the body, while the other is placed upon the belly, bent in 90° at the elbow. 14 such cases are known (10.07 %).In the third group one arm or both arms were placed on the chest. The positions of the arms VII–VIII, X– XII, XVI and XVII fall into this category. 13 of the 139 graves belong to this group (9.35%). The position of the forearms XIV belongs to Group IV, when the arms were crossed on the pelvic vertebrae or the hands were clasped. Those positions also belong to this group when one hand is alongside the body and the other is bent on the pelvis in 45°, towards the other arm, sometimes clasping that. 20 such cases are registered in the site (14.38%). The positions of the forearms XIII belongs to Group V, of which five graves are known in the site (3.59%). According to some the positions of the forearms of groups II–V reflect the influence of Byzantine CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 305 Christianity 27 . Therefore we have tried to chart the frequency and the dating of the five main types of the positions of the forearms. V group IV group III. group II. group I. group 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I. gr oup II. group III. gr oup IV group V group 89 14 13 20 5 Nr. of the graves Fig. 3. The groups created during the categorisation of the positions of the forearms. 60 10 century 11 century 49 50 40 38 30 20 10 11 10 9 10 4 3 3 2 0 Group I Group II Group III Group IV Group V Fig. 4: The quantitative categorisation of the groups of different positions of the forearms. According to statistics it is clear that the so-called Byzantine-style positions of the arms form a smaller part of the registered positions and at the same time their occurrence is equally frequent in the 10th and the 11th century graves. 4.7. Oboluses (Pl. 2; 8) It is a most difficult task to decide whether the coins, found in different circumstances, can be considered obuluses or belonged to clothing. In other words, do they belong to the burial customs or are they the elements of fashion? The coins found in mouths, on the chest or in the hand should be considered obuluses. Coins that can be considered obuluses in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia are known from graves 59, 67, 70, 93 (three coins), 95, 105, 133, 137 (two coins), 138, 140–142, 145, 152, 170, 196, 200, 207, 209, 216–217, 224–225 (two coins), 228 and 231. It can be observed that in each case 11th century coins have been found from the Árpád era, which indicates the chronology of the 11th century cemetery too. It is important to note that the burials, dated by the coins from the early Árpád era, were all found in the northern part of the cemetery, in the graves excavated between 2004 and 2008. Their chronological value is to be discussed in the chronological analysis of the parts of cemetery. The positions of these coins in the graves and their definitions according to the Huszár 27 Szabó 1984, p. 83–97. E. Gáll 306 catalogue are shown in the following chart: Grave number Grave 59 Grave 67 Grave 70 Grave 93/1 The age and sex of the skeleton adult adult adult child The king who issued the coin András I (1046–1060) Péter Orseolo (1038–1041, 1044–1046) András I (1046–1060) Stephen I (1001–1038) Coin type H8 H6 H8 H1 Grave 93/2 child Stephen I (1001–1038) H1 Grave 93/3 Grave 94 Grave105 Grave133 Grave137/1 Grave137/2 child adult child adult adult adult András I (1046–1060) Stephen I (1001–1038) Salamon (1063–1074) Stephen I (1001–1038) Stephen I (1001–1038) András I (1001–1038) H8 H1a H14 H1 H1 H8 Grave138 Grave141 child child András I (1001–1038) Béla I (1060–1063) H8 H12 Grave142 Grave144 Grave145 child adult adult Stephen I (1001–1038) András I (1001–1038) Stephen I (1001–1038) H1 H8 H1 Grave152 Grave170 woman adult Peter Orseolo (1038–1041, 1044–1046) Stephen I (1001–1038) H6 H1 Grave196 Grave200 adult adult Stephen I (1001–1038) András I (1001–1038) H1 H8 Grave207 Grave209 adult adult Salamon (1063–1074) Peter Orseolo (1038–1041, 1044–1046) H17 H6 Grave216 Grave217 adult child Aba Sámuel (1041–1044) Aba Sámuel (1041–1044) H7 H7 Grave224 Grave225/1 adult child Stephen I (1001–1038) András I (1001–1038) H1 H8 Grave2252 Grave228 Grave231 child adult adult Stephen I (1001–1038) Stephen I (1001–1038) András I (1001–1038) H1 H1 H8 The position of the coin in the grave in the mouth in the mouth in the mouth on the right side of the chest on the right side of the chest in the mouth on the left temple on the pelvis on the left temple in the mouth on the left side of the chest in the mouth on the left of the jaws in the mouth in the mouth among the shreds of the skull in the mouth on the left of the skull in the mouth on the left side of the chest in the mouth in the place of the mouth in the mouth next to the skull bones under the skull under the skull, on the right side on the chest bone under the skull on the jaw Fig. 5. Burials with oboluses in the cemetery in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia. It is important to mention that in most cases only one coin was put in the grave (22 cases), in two cases (graves 137 and 225) there were two coins, and in one case three coins (grave 93). The perforated coin in grave 225, which was found on the chest bone, could have been a jewel, although its location in the grave does not exclude the possibility that it was an obulus. It can also be seen in the chart above that most of the 24 coins were found in the mouth (13 coins), left of the skull (one coin), among the shreds of the skull (one coin), on the left temple (two coins), left of the jaws (one coin), next to the skull bones (one coin), under the skull (two coins), under the skull, on the right side (one coin), on the jaw (one coin). So 23 of the registered 29 coins were found near the head, five around the chest bone and one on the pelvis. CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 307 We would like to discuss the issue of the perforated coins in short because in their case one might suspect jewellery. This possibility cannot be crossed out in the case of grave 225, which is a child grave, as the pierced coin was found on the chest bone. This possibility should also be taken into consideration in the case of grave 217, as the pierced coin was found near the skull bones, but the pierced coin from the time of King András in grave 93 was found in the mouth, which excludes the possibility that it was used as jewellery, but earlier it might have served this purpose. It is also important to mention that the denarius in grave 142 is circumcised. Following the hypothesis of Szőke B. the burial obuluses were thought to have been put into the graves of children and women, and only exceptionally into the graves of men 28 . But at that time Szőke didn't know the finds of the Halimba cemetery and the anthropological analysis of the later excavated Pusztaszentlászló cemetery 29 . Unfortunately, for lack of the anthropological analyses of the cemetery in Brânduşei Street, this phenomenon cannot be researched. It is certain that adults were buried in the graves 59, 67, 70, 95, 133, 137, 140, 145, 152, 170, 196, 200, 207, 209, 216, 224, 228 and 231. As opposed to this, those in graves 93, 105, 138, 141, 142, 217 and 225 were children, and in the child grave, grave 142, an H1 coin was found, which indicates that in the case of children this custom can be traced back to such an early period. In two cases when more than one coin were found children were buried in the grave, although in one case two coins were found in an adult grave. The coins found in the graves, can be divided into two categories: 1. A coin/coins of a king in the grave. If the coin(s) of Stephen I, Peter Orseolo, Samuel Aba, András I was/were found in a grave, it can be supposed that there must have been a short interval of time between their coinage, issuing date and the time when they were buried. 2. If the coins of two or three kings are in the grave there must have been a longer period between the minting of the earliest coin and the time when it was put into the grave, so it can be considered unimportant chronologically. In our site three cases are known, graves 93, 137 and 225, where the H1 coin of King Stephen I and the H8 coin of András I were found. These examples indicate the fact that the coins of King Stephen I did not fall out of use for a long time, a thing to which István Gedai and László Kovács have already drawn attention 30 . In conclusion, it can be stated that the custom of giving obuluses can be attested from the beginning of the 11th century in the Alba Iulia cemetery. These coins quite exactly illustrate the chronological order of the use of the 11th century cemetery. 4. 8. Food furnishings (Pl. 5) The only things found that refer to the existence of food furnishings are earthenware pots. According to the documentation, clay pots were found in graves 9, 12–16, 28–29, 46, 106, 155, 157 and 189 in the Alba Iulia cemetery. The remains of the food have been preserved only in one case: a boiled egg was put in the pot in grave 15. In graves 26, 47 and 55 shreds of pottery were found, which clearly shows the deliberate breaking of the pots. Similar customs were observed in the 9th century cemetery in Sopron-Présháztelep, in Nitra and in Zsitvaulány 31 . The clay pots were found in the following positions: 1. On the right side of the skull: grave 29 2. Next to the right shoulder: grave 9 3. Above the right shoulder: grave 12 4. Above the pelvic bone: grave 189 5. Left of the pelvic bone: grave 28 6. Next to the right shinbone: grave 155 7. Next to the left thighbone: graves 15–16 8. Next to the left shinbone, almost at the ankle: grave 46 9. Between the two shinbones: graves 106 and 157 10. Next to the left foot: grave 13 11. In the grave hole: grave 14 28 Szőke 1962, p. 92. Török 1962, p. 142–169; Szőke, Vándor 1987, p. 77–78. 30 Gedai 1986, p. 66, 68; Kovács 1997, p. 84. 31 Tettamanti 1975, note 130. 29 E. Gáll 308 According to the above mentioned 11 positions, it can be stated that the pottery containing the food or drink was placed near the skull (three cases: graves 9, 12 and 29), near the pelvis (two cases: graves 28 and 189), near the thighs (two cases: graves 15–16), and near the shinbones (five cases: graves 13, 46, 106, 155 and 157). It is important that the earthenware pots placed near the shinbones, were put between the shinbones or next to the left shinbone. For lack of anthropological analyses we don't know whether the pottery grave furnishings had any gender characteristics. There was only one case when an anthropological analysis was carried out in the grave at 55 Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia, in which a female skeleton was found. In the rest of the graves the sex of the skeletons is not known, according to their height, they can be divided into an adult group and a child group. Graves Grave 9 Grave10 Grave12 Grave13 Grave14 Grave15 Grave16 Grave26 Grave28 Grave29 Grave46 Grave47 Grave55 Grave106 Grave155 Grave157 Grave189 Sex and age of the skeleton adult unknown adult adult child child adult child child adult adult child female adult adult adult adult Earthenware-shreds of earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware shreds of earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware shreds of earthenware shreds of earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware earthenware Fig. 6. Burials with earthenware in the cemetery in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia. According to the map of the cemetery, it is clear that burials with earthenware furnishings have been discovered mainly in the southern group of graves, which date from the 10th century, in that part no grave has been found with furnishings characteristic of the 11th century, the early Árpád era. The latest dug graves with earthenware furnishings were graves 107, 155, 157 and 189, in their neighbourhood graves from the Árpád era were found with elements of the material culture characteristic of the Árpád era, but deriving from the second half of the 11th century. So the above mentioned graves should all be dated to the pagan 10th century. In the parts of the cemetery dated to the 11th century the earthenware pots, representing food and drink, have not been found. 5. The finds of the necropolis The statistical analysis of the finds in the cemetery From the 229 graves with 231 skeletons that have been discovered so far, in 114 cases, i. e. 49.35 % of the graves, no object made of solid material have been found. In the other 115 graves mainly jewellery was found along with amulets, everyday objects, coins given as oboluses and earthenware pots indicating food furnishings. The fact is indicative of the poverty of the place that out of the 115 grave furnishings in 44 cases only one item was found, mainly hair-rings and in six cases clay pots made on hand-driven discs (this is 38.26 % of the 115 graves). 5.1. Hair-rings (Pl. 6–7) Out of the jewellery, the different types of hair-rings have been found in the biggest quantity: 1. a. Simple hair-ring with its ends opposite each other (1a): graves 3 (one piece Br.), 12 (two pieces Br.), 16 (one piece Ag.), 26 (one piece Ag.), 31(one piece Br.), 40 (one piece Ag.), 48 (one piece Br.), 55. (one piece Br.), 65. (one piece Br.), 89 (one piece Ag.), 124 (two pieces Ag.), 129 (one piece Br.), 149. A. (two plated with gold Br., one piece Br.), 153 (one piece Ag.), 176 (one piece Br.) and 191 (one piece Br.), 1. b. Simple hair-ring with its ends bent on each other (1b): grave 3 (five pieces Br.), 20 (one piece Ag.), 27 (one piece Br., one piece Ag.), 33 (one piece Br.), 42 (one piece Br.), 48 (one piece Br.), 51 (one CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 309 piece Br.), 55 (three pieces Br.), 77 (one piece Br.), 96 (one piece Br.), 103 (one piece Br.), 123 (two pieces Br.), 126 (one piece Br.), 127 (two pieces Br.), 153 (one piece Ag.), 155 (one piece Ag., one piece Br.), 158 (one piece Br.), 159 (two pieces Br.), 181 (two pieces plated with gold Br.) and 195 (one piece Br.) 2. a. Mostly pear-shaped and oval hair-ring type in smaller size with its ends opposite each other (2a– 2b): grave 6 (one piece Br.), 27 (two pieces Br.), 28 (one piece Ag.), 31 (two pieces Br.), 89 (two pieces Ag.), 158 (one piece Br.), 161 (one piece Br.), 169 (one piece Ag.) and 191 (one piece Br.). 2. b. Mostly pear-shaped and oval hair-ring type in smaller size with its ends bent on each other: graves 7 (four pieces Ag.), 13 (one piece Ag.) and 52 (one piece Br.) 2. b. 1. Simple, small, pear-shaped hair-ring, the ends are twisted around each other (2b1): grave 155 (one piece Br.) 3. Closed hair-ring with oval or round cross-section (3): graves 21 (one piece Br.) and 38 (one piece Br.). 4. 1. Simple hair rings with S-shaped, flat ends (5a): graves 58 (one piece Br.), 60 (seven pieces Br.), 61. (one piece Br.), 62 (one piece Br.), 63 (one piece Br.), 65 (one piece Br.), 68 (one piece Br.), 71 (one piece Ag.), 92 (two pieces Br.), 94 (two pieces Br.), 96 (one piece Br.), 99 (two pieces Br.), 102 (one piece Br.), 105 (two pieces Ag.), 121 (one piece Ag.), 129 (one piece Br.), 130 (one piece Ag.), 132 (one piece Ag.), 137 (two pieces Ag.), 141 (two pieces Ag.), 143 (one piece Br.), 152 (two pieces Br.), 161 (two pieces Br.), 163 (two pieces Ag.), 166 (one piece Br.), 169 (one piece Ag.), 170 (two pieces Br.), 200 (two piecesAg.), 204 (two pieces Ag.), 208 (one piece Br.), 213 (two pieces Br.), 221 (two pieces Br.), 227 (two pieces plated with gold Ag.), and 228 (two pieces Br.). 4. 2. Hair-rings with rectangular cross-section, with S-shaped end (5c): grave 220 (one piece Br.). 4. 2. Grooved hair-rings with S-shaped ends (5d): graves 213 (one piece Br.) and 220 (one piece Br.). 5. Hair-ring with twisted ends (6): grave 79 (one piece Ag.) The shard of a hair-ring: grave 134 (one piece Ag.). To sum it up, 128 hair-rings have been found in 75 graves, which can be assorted into eight variants of five main types. In our statistics we have indicated the type of each hair-ring and the materials they were made of. 140 In all Ag Br Gilded Ag. Gilded Br. 120 128 100 87 80 60 55 38 40 36 29 23 20 20 15 12 11 7 2 4 2 9 3 65 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 11 2 1 1 11 6 Fragment 2 4 0 1a 1b 2a 2b 2b1 3 5a 5c 5d In all Fig. 7. The quantities of different hair-rings according to their types and the materials they were made of. According to our data, in most graves one (33 cases) or two (? cases) hair-rings were found. One hairring was found in 16 graves from the 10th century and in 17 graves from the 11th century. In 17 cases two hair-rings were found, in ten graves from the 10th century and in seven graves from the 11th century. Graves 89, 149 A, 155, 161, 163, 213 are exceptional as three hair-rings were found in them each (in three cases from the 10th century and in three cases from the 11th century), and graves 7, 27 and 55 in which 310 E. Gáll four hair-rings (each grave dates from the 11th century) and graves 3 and 6 with seven hair-rings in each (the former is from the 1011th century, the latter is from the 11th century). Taking these into consideration, it can be stated that wearing more than two hair-rings was not the classic type. In four cases it is certain that the hair-rings were found in female graves (graves 55, 64, 69 and 152) and in a considerable amount, in 29 cases in child, or at least infant graves (graves 3, 26–28, 31, 40, 57–58, 60–62, 65, 71, 79, 94, 103, 105, 123, 129–130, 134, 141, 143, 158, 166, 204, 208, 213 and 220). In several cases such finds were found that may refer to a male: in grave 6 an iron knife, a strike-alight and a flint stone was found along with the hair-ring; in grave 7 an iron knife with the four hair-rings; in grave 124 two hair-rings with a cast ring with semicircular cross-section; in grave 137 the coins of King Stephen I and András I were found along with two hair-rings with S-shaped ends, a twisted ring, a bronzerimmed bracelet and an iron ring. It also goes to show that men also wore hair-rings with S-shaped ends. In the remaining 37 graves, for lack of anthropological analyses, it is not to be decided whether the skeletons are males or females; the only thing one can say for certain is that they were adults. These are graves 12–13, 16, 33, 38, 42, 48, 51–52, 58, 64, 68, 77, 79, 89, 96, 99, 102, 121, 126–127, 132, 149. A, 153, 155, 159, 161, 163, 169–170, 181, 191, 195, 200, 221, 227–228. Based on these facts, it can be firmly stated that hair-rings were worn regardless of age, gender or type of the hair-ring in the 10th–11th centuries, therefore this category is not indicative of either gender or age, similarly a small amount of hair-rings (1–3 pieces) cannot be connected to sex or age but it might also be important to mention that seven hair-rings were only found in infant graves, who are supposed to have been females based on other items found in the graves. Dating of the types of hair-rings The simple (1a–1b) and the oval or pear-shaped (2a–2b) hair-rings are mostly known from graves in the southern, older parts of the necropolis, dated from the 10th century. From graves 3, 12, 16, 27, 32–33, 40, 42, 48, 51, 55, 176 simple 1a–1b type hair-rings, from graves 6–7, 13, 27, 31 and 52 small, oval or pearshaped hair-rings are known. The items from graves 155, 158, 159 and 181 are dated from the late 10th century. To the north, graves 103, 123–124, 126–127, 149 A–B are dated to the turn of the 10th–11th centuries. The simple hair-rings (1a–b) were still in use in the 11th century, but they are rarely to be seen, as the relics of the material culture of a by-gone age. The hair-rings from graves 98 and 129 are dated from the first half of the century, in both cases the H1 coins of King Stephen I were found. Graves 153 and 182 date from a later period, the middle or the second half of the century as they lie near graves 65, 77 and 89, which are dated by the coin types H6 and H8. In the latter case a superposition is to be observed since the person in grave 59 was buried above grave 89, with a coin of András I used as an obulus. So it seems quite reasonable that grave 89 precedes grave 60, which is dated to the middle or the second half of the 11th century by the coin of András I. In grave 65 a simple hair-ring was found together with a hair-ring with an S-shaped end, however, the closeness of graves 70 and 67 (with coins of H6 and H8 types) makes it likely that this one also dates from the middle or the second half of the 11th century. The earliest pear-shaped hair-rings (2a–2b) were found in graves 6, 13, 27–28, 31 and 52, in the part of the cemetery dating from the second half of the 10th century. According to the chart of the cemetery, graves 155 and 157 date from the 10th century too. As opposed to them the types in graves 89, 161 and 169 date from the first half of the 11th century, and the hair-ring type of grave 191 from the middle or the second half of the century. By contrast to the pear-shaped and simple hair-rings the ones with S-shaped ends are known only from the northern parts of the cemetery, probably the oldest hair-ring with S-shaped ends is known from grave 130, which is dated from the end of the 10th or the beginning of the 11th century based on the furnishings and the rites of this group of graves. A grave was found next to it with earthenware furnishing and E-W orientation (grave 106), and another one without any furnishing (grave 110). A little further other graves were found without furnishings (graves 111, 116) and it was followed by another group with hair-rings with S-shaped ends (graves 122–124, 128). In grave 128 a person was buried with a knife, a flint, a strike-a-light and a leather belt with a lyre-shaped buckle, in grave 124 a simple hair-ring of 1a type, a closed ring with semicircular cross-section and another knife, in the child grave 123 two hair-rings of 1b type were found whereas the child grave 122 was without furnishing. All these items are typical of the material culture of the 10th century except for the closed ring with semicircular cross-section. The hair-ring with an S-shaped end from grave 121 dates from the beginning of the 11th century together with the open, twisted silver ring like grave 102, in which similar furnishings were found. Not far from this grave a child grave was dug on top of grave 119, in which Salamon's H14 type of coin (1063– CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 311 1074) was found, which can indicate that the other graves could not have been dug before the first decades of the 11th century. According to the cemetery map the hair-rings with S-shaped ends in graves 96, 99, 129, 132, 161, 163, 166, 169–170 date from the first half of the century, but the hair-rings from graves 137, 152, 141, 227, which are dated by the H6 type coins of Peter Orseolo and the H8 type coins of András I are from a later period, the middle or the second half of the century. The dating of the hair-rings in graves 221 and 228 raise some problems, although in grave 228 the H1 coin of King Stephen I was found along with a hair-ring with an S-shaped end, right next to it a grooved hair-ring was found with an S-shaped end, which is thought to have come into fashion in the second half of the 11th century 32 . It might bear of importance that not far from these graves the H7 type coin of Samuel Aba was found in grave 217, and beside it similarly, a bezel led hair-ring with an S-shaped end (5d) was found, which allows us to infer that these graves were dug in the second third of the century, therefore these hair-ring variants must have caught on in the middle third of the century. The hair-rings with S-shaped ends from the parts of the cemetery that were excavated in 2004 and 2007 are from a later age: the hair-rings with S-shaped ends were found in graves next to graves in which obuluses of András I and other indefinable kings of the Árpád dynasty were discovered. Next to grave 68 with a twisted silver ring and a hair-ring with an S-shaped end lies grave 67, in which a coin of András I was registered. East of this lies grave 62 with an S-shaped hair-ring, south-east of this is grave 66 an S-shaped hair-ring was found along with a hair-ring of type 1a and next to grave 58 grave 70 is dated by the coin of András I. Similarly, grave 200 is dated back to the middle third of the century by the H8 type coin of András I, together with the nearby graves containing hair-rings with S-shaped ends (graves 204 and 208). The hair-ring with rectangular cross-section with an S-shaped end from grave 204 along with the hairring with twisted ends from grave 79 is dated from the middle or the second half of the century. 5. 2. Neck lets (Pl. 6; 10) The different types of neck bracelets belong to the jewellery. Three types of them had been found in our necropolis. 1. String neck lets made from one string: graves 3 (Fe) and 142 (Br.). 2. String neck lets with rhomboid cross-section: grave 129 (Br.). 3. Twisted neck lets: graves 64 and 94 (Br.). In the parts of the Alba Iulia necropolis five pieces of three different types were found, all three of them with chronological consequences in the Transylvanian Basin. Almost all of them are from the 11th century, the string necklace from grave 3 being the only exception, which was probably buried in the second half of the 10th century. Another string necklace was discovered along with an H1 type coin, not far from it a grave was excavated, dated by coins of H1 and H8 types, which makes it probable that the string necklace was buried in the middle third of the century. According to László Kovács's latest research, the neck lets made of thick, bronze strings are to be dated between the 20s and the 60s of the 11th century 33 . This is not contradicted by the pieces found in Alba Iulia, they even confirm it, as graves 64 and 94 were found in a part of the necropolis that is dated from the first half and the middle of the 11th century. The necklace with rhomboid cross-section can be dated in a similar way: according to its position in the cemetery it could not have been buried earlier than the first third years of the 11th century. One more problem is to be discussed in connection with the string necklace let found in grave 3 in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia, because it can be seen well on the bent string that it wasn't an elaborated jewel. In each of the graves, in which iron chains have been found, a child was buried and where their age can be determined they were under ten 34 . According to Solymossy, it can also be found in the Hungarian folklore that pieces of iron were put in the swaddling clothes of the newborn child and the cot of little children to keep away the evil creatures and misfortune lurking around them 35 . In this light the necklace from Alba Iulia, which is a piece of bent iron, can be assessed as an archaeological confirmation of Solymossy's statement. This string necklace can be dated from the 10th century, but the rest of them derive from a later age. 5. 3. Bracelets (Pl. 7; 10) Very few bracelets have been found compared to the average number of them in other 10 and 11th century cemeteries. Only 4 have been found in the 229 excavated graves: 32 Szőke 1962, p. 89; Szőke, Vándor 1987, p. 51–52. Kovács 1994, p. 115. 34 Horváth 2005, p. 469–472. 35 Solymossy 1933, p. 103–104. 33 312 E. Gáll 1. Cast bracelet with dotted circular ornaments: grave 137 (Br.). 2. String bracelet: grave 31 (1 piece-Br.) and grave 55 (1 piece-Br.). 3. Wire cast bracelet with rectangular cross-section: grave 221 (1 piece-Br.). String bracelets were used throughout the 10th century, and these ones were found in the southern parts of the cemetery dating from the 10th century. The cast bracelets with dotted circular ornaments are characteristic of the 11th century, which is supported by the hair-rings with S-shaped ends and mainly by the H1 coin of King Stephen I 36 . The spread of the wire cast bracelet with rectangular cross-section we can date from the end of the 10th century. 5.4. Finger rings (Pl. 7; 11) Much more different types of finger rings have been found, all in all ten have been distinguished. 1. Open wire ring (1a): grave 16 (1 piece-Ag.), grave 63 (1 piece-Br.), grave 89 (2 pieces-Br.), grave 96 (1 piece-Br.), grave 132 (1 piece-Br.) grave 152 (1 piece-Br.), grave 221 (1 piece-Br.) and grave 228 (1 piece-Br.). 2. Braided string finger ring with hammered ends (1b): grave 137 (1 piece-Ag.). 3. Braided open finger ring (1c): grave 68 (1 piece-Br.), grave 102 (1 piece-Ag.), grave 121 (1 pieceBr.), grave 200 (1 piece-Br.), grave 227 (1 piece-Br.) and grave 231 (1 piece-Br.). 4. Wire finger ring with rectangular cross-section (2a): grave 94 (1 piece-Br.), grave 99 (1 piece-Br.) and grave 170 (1 piece-Br.). 5. Wire finger ring with octangular cross-section (2b): grave 94 (1 piece-Br.). 6. Cast, closed wire finger ring forming a pseudo-granulation ornament (3e): grave 22 (1 piece-Br.). 7. Knobbed ring, twisted in a spiral (3i): graves 16 (1 piece-Ag.) and 33 (1 piece-Ag.). 8. Knobbed ring with pseudo-granulation ornament and a narrow strap (3k): grave 175 (1 piece-Br.). 9. Cast, closed finger ring with round cross-section (4a1): grave 21 (2 pieces-Br.). 10. Closed, simple finger ring with semicircular cross-section (4a3): grave 124 (1 piece-Br.), 127 (1 piece-Br.) and grave 159 (1 piece-Br). 11. Finger ring cast in braids (4c): grave 22 (1 piece-Br.). 12. Simple strap ring without ornaments with its ends bent on each other (5a): grave 63 (1 piece-Br.) and grave 120 (1 piece-Br.). 13. Widened strap ring with a knob (5e): grave 163 (1 piece-Br.). Typologically, rings have the most varied categories. The 32 rings, which were found in 27 graves, have been classified into 13 variants. In 17 graves only one ring was registered, in nine cases the ring was found on the ring finger of the left hand (graves 96, 102, 121, 124, 127, 132, 152, 221 and 228) and in ten cases on the right hand (33, 68, 99, 120, 137, 159, 170, 175, 200 and 231). Their sexes cannot be guessed based upon their positions and for lack of anthropological analyses we cannot add any valuable comments to this issue. In 6 graves 2 rings were found, in three cases both rings were found on the fingers of the right hand, in three cases one ring was on the right hand and one on the left. As for their material, most rings were made of bronze (27 pieces) and some of silver or its weaker variant (5 pieces). In these parts of the necropolis the dates of the rings can be studied easily: they are known to have been used in the middle and the second half of the 10th century, but they were also discovered in graves dated by the coins of Hungarian kings. Part of the string rings of type 1a are dated from the 10 century (graves 16 and 89) and part of them from the 11th century. The open braided rings of type 1b are all dated from the 11th century: the bronze ring from grave 137 in Alba Iulia was found among such furnishings as the coins of Stephen I and András I and a strap bracelet with circular ornaments and rounded ends. The twisted open wire finger rings, similarly to the braided rings, are typical products of the material culture of a new age. In the Alba Iulia necropolis they were found in two graves (graves 102 and 121) where the nearby graves were surely dug at the beginning of the 11th century. The string ring with rectangular cross-section was found at the edge of the northern part of the necropolis, in grave 111, this type was found near graves with twisted rings in the furnishings. Grave 94 (there were the S-shaped lockrings, a twisted necklace and a finger ring with multi-angled cross-section were among the furnishings) was found near grave 93, which is dated by the coin of András I, so this grave was probably also dug in the second half of the 11th century. According to the map of the necropolis, the closed, knobbed ring with pseudo-granulation ornament 36 A similar piece is known from Moldoveneşti – grave 42. Roska 1914, p. 140, Fig. 7. 9-a. CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 313 can be dated from the second half of the 10th century. The knobbed ring twist in a spiral can also be dated from the second half or the end of the century according to its position in the cemetery and its parallels. Some parallels of this type of ring in the Carpathian Basin can also be dated back to the second half of the 10th century 37 . This is also confirmed by the international dating: in the Spiljovka treasure it was found together with buckles typical of the age of the Hungarian Conquest, four silver bracelets, the solidus of Constantine VII and Romanos (948–959) and a dirhem minted in 966/967 38 . The gold variants of the rings found in the Gotland treasure also date from the middle of the century 39 . Therefore this type of ring can be dated quite surely from the second half of the 10th century or the end of it. The knobbed ring from grave 175 is dated from the 10th century without any parallels from the Carpathian Basin and according to its position in the necropolis, grave 163, in which a knobbed strap ring was discovered, dates from the 11th century. The simple strap ring from grave 120, which is oriented E-W, dates from the end of the 10th century. 5. 5. Buttons (Pl. 6) Buttons form another considerable, if not representative, amount of finds from the 10th century in the Carpathian Basin. In our cemetery three types have been found: 1. Simple, solid, cast button with ears: graves 41 (one piece Br.) and 204 (one piece Fe.). 2. Simple round button with ears and a handle at the end: grave 55 (two pieces Br.). 3. Ornament buttons: grave 204 (three pieces Br.). 5. 6. Clothes or collar ornaments (Pl. 7) Similarly, only a small amount of clothes and collar ornaments have been found. In grave 60 a round one, in grave 129 a drop shaped one was found. Grave 60 is dated quite exactly by a coin of András I (1046– 1060) back to the middle or the second half of the 11th century without any known analogous find. In grave 204, on the chest bone together with ornament buttons, the upper part of a pendant was registered, Salamon's coin of type H17 was found in the neighbouring grave 207, and King Stephen's H1 type coin was also found in the nearby grave 196, which testify that this grave cannot be dated back earlier than the second half of the 11th century. Furthermore, a clothes ornament without the pendant was found in the Alba Iulia necropolis in a secondary position. The parallels of the upper part of a robe pendant, pierced in the middle from grave 145 1B1 are known from Mohács and Budapest-Rákospalota 40 , similar but not pierced pieces forming four hearts are known from Szeged-Bojárhalom and Székesfehérvár-Demkóhegy 41 . A pendant without its lower part, which was found in secondary function, is dated back to the first half of the 11th century by an H1 coin of Stephen I (1001–1038). 5. 7. Beads (Pl. 8) Different types of beads were found in graves 1, 63, 72, 77 and 152.A string of beads was registered in grave 72 (multiple bar-beads in type Szilágyi 1–4, bead with cloved ornaments type Szilágy 6, flat bead type Szilágyi 58, cylindrical bead, cylindrical grooved bead, millet bead type Szilágyi 37, disc-shaped bead type Szilágyi 18–19) 42 and some in the other three burials (graves 63, 72 and 77). In grave 72 a child was buried, but his sex is unknown. In grave 152 a string of 148 beads was found. Among them there are bar-beads of two parts, grain beads and simple beads in different colours. The grave is dated back to the second quarter or the middle of the 11th century by Peter Orseolo's (1038–1041, 1044–1046) silver denary of type H6. 5. 8. Belt ornaments used for the second time (Pl. 7) The belt ornament in grave 129 was found in a similar secondary position as a pendant from the neck. Its exact parallels are known from grave 4 in Miskolc Airport (as a secondary belt ornament) 43 and Szentes37 This dating is confirmed by the parallels in the Carpathian Basin. Szered-cemetery II., Komáromszentpéter, Valkóvár (Vukovar) – grave 151. Demo 1996, Fig. 36; Točik 1968, p. 41–51; Mesterházy 1993, p. 458. 38 Korzuhina 1954, p. 86, Pl. 9. 39 Sternberger 1947, p. 99. 40 Bálint 1991, Pl. XLV. 1–2. 41 Bálint 1991, Pl. XLV. 4, XLVI. 1. 42 Szilágyi 1994, p. 75–110. 43 Révész László dated the cemetery between the middle third of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century, and he dated the above mentioned Grave 4 back to the early period of the cemetery. There it was found on the pelvic bone of a female skeleton. 314 E. Gáll Nagyhegy 44 and some parallels from Bulgaria are also documented (Preslav, Starmen, Huma) 45 The grave is dated from the first decades of the 11th century by its position and furnishings. 5.9. Buckles (Pl. 7) Some buckles have been found in the necropolis, namely two lyre-shaped buckles in graves 21 and 128 in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia (one piece in each-Br.). They date from the second half of the 10th century or the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. The oval shaped bronze ring with round cross-section also belonged to the belt. It was found near the belt, between the two femurs in grave 128. 5.10. Everyday objects (Pl. 8; 12) Everyday objects are typical of the material culture of the 10th–11th centuries. The most characteristic item category in the Alba Iulia necropolis is knives and on a smaller scale strike-a-lights and flint stones. Knives were found in graves 6, 7, 17, 124, 128, 137 and 181, strike-a-light and flint stone was found in the same graves 6 and 128. The knives found in graves 6–7, and 17 were found in parts of the cemetery dating from the second half of the 10th century, graves 124 and 128 may date from the turn of the century whereas grave 137 is dated back to the beginning of the 11th century by an H1 coin of Stephen I, which means that certain elements of the pagan burial customs still lingered in the 11th century. 6. Dating the parts of the necropolis (Pl. 13–14) According to the finds, the parts of the necropolis were used in the 10th and 11th centuries, but the relationship between the parts of the necropolis remains a mystery. The analysis of the finds shows that the earliest phase of the burials can be connected to the graves oriented E-W, in an inverse direction. The graves excavated in 1997, 1999 and 2001 belong to this phase, but even among these graves there are chronological differences. Judging from their furnishings, graves 48–57 must have been dug the earliest. They could have been dug as early as the middle third of the 10th century. The graves excavated in 1997 and 1999 can be dated easier: the graves excavated in 1997 belong to a segment of the 10th century cemetery that was used in an earlier period (graves 2–9, 12–15, 19–20, 24), but in the graves that are situated east of these (graves 1, 10– 11, 21–23) such finds were discovered that date from the end of the century or the beginning of the 11th century (it is the ring from grave 22, which was made as if it had been twisted). The graves with poorer furnishings (graves 25–47), which were excavated in 1999, can hardly be dated, our only chronological support is the knobbed ring twisted in a spiral, which dates this part of the cemetery from the last third of the 10th century. This was confirmed by the excavations in 2005 and 2006, when grave 106 was found with its E-W orientation, which is typical of that time, and its earthenware furnishing, and in grave 130 a hair-ring with an S-shaped end was found, indicating that they can date from the end of the 10th and the beginning of the 11th centuries. From this phase we know a simple 1a type hair-ring, a knife (grave 124), a lyre-shaped buckle, compound equipment of a strike-a-light and a flint (grave 128), but two unadorned strap rings with semicircular cross-section were also found (graves 124 and 127), which is characteristic of the first half of the 11th century. Probably, we are close to the truth dating this part of the cemetery back to the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. The coins from the early Árpád era are the most important characteristics of those parts of the cemetery dating from the 11th century, the earliest of them is the H1 type coin minted by Stephen I. During the analysis of the cemetery, which was thought to be one unit by the excavators, we have come to the conclusion that this is a far more complex issue, raising a lot of questions as to whether the 10th century cemetery with its inversely oriented burials was continued in the 11th century or a new population established a new cemetery nearby, i. e. can both the signs of continuity and those of immigration be recognised in the Alba Iulia cemetery? (Pl. 14) When analysing the 11th century part of the cemetery, it is to be observed that the burials containing coins of H1 type and finds dating from the beginning of the 11th century are situated far from one another, in three different places. The part of the cemetery which is considered the oldest core of it with the most graves containing H1 coins was excavated in 2005 in the property of Flavius Bozdog (graves 94, 133, 142). In the parts further to Révész 1992, p. 98–102, Fig. V. 2. 44 Bálint 1991, p. 255–257, Pl. LXIV. 1–50. 45 Révész 1996, p. 143. CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 315 the east and west, which were excavated in 2004 (the property of Ion Bodea) and 2008 (the property of Floarea Mărginean) the coins of Peter Orseolo (1038–1041, 1044–1046), Samuel Aba (1041–1044) and András I (1046–1060) were found (graves 59, 67, 70, 152, 217 and 231) proving that these parts of the cemetery were used later 46 . The parts of the cemetery excavated in 2005 (graves 58–92) date from the middle or the second half of the 11th century along with the child grave found in superposition (grave 105). This part of the cemetery is dated by the H8 coins back to that period. The rest of the finds are typical of the 11th century (hair-rings with S-shaped ends, braided silver rings, hair-rings with twisted ends). Salamon's H14 type coin from grave 105 dates from the 70s of the 11th century, which makes it probable that the cemetery was used as far as the end of the century. As the graves with King Stephen's H1 type coins are not far from those with András's H8 type coins, it is to be supposed that the graves in core I of the cemetery, which was excavated in 2005, were dug in the second decade of the 11th century. To the east, in the part of the cemetery excavated in 2005–2006, grave 105 was discovered with Salamon's coin of type H14 dating from the second half of the century, under which grave 103 was found with E-W orientation dating from the 10th century. These facts and the graves with obuluses show a radial development of the core of the cemetery. In this place the part of the cemetery, dated by the grave with the coin from the second half of the 11th century, overlaps the part dating from the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries (there is at least an interval of 50 or 60 years between them), which allows us to come to the conclusion that these are two different cemeteries used in two different time periods. The graves with H1 coins were found more than 60 metres away from the graves with H1 coins (Pl. 2; 13–14). The second cemetery centre, with only few graves, is north of grave 105, at the edge of the necropolis, around grave 170, in which the H1 coin of King Stephen I was found. In its neighbourhood a few graves with S-shaped hair-rings were registered. The question whether the people in these graves had any connections with those in the graves with 10th century furnishings, whether they were their descendants cannot be answered by archaeological evidence. In this case the possibility is not to be excluded that the 10th century cemetery developed further in this direction, so together with a possible new population the earlier population stayed and continued burying here. The new elements in the finds can be put down to a simple change in fashion. A small part of the third cemetery core was unearthed during the 2007 excavations, whose earlier phase is represented by grave 203 with a coin of type H1, next to which graves with H6 and H8 coins were found and ten metres to the northwest of it a grave with Salamon's H17 type coin was discovered. In this case a small cemetery core is supposed to lie here and the numismatic question should be considered that the H1 coin, minted by Stephen I, must have been buried later. At present it seems that the 11th century part of the necropolis consists of three clusters of graves. The question of whether there was any sociological relationship between these people or not cannot be answered by archaeological evidence, other researches are required to find the answer. Nevertheless, it is conspicuous that the greatest number of skeletons was found in the first core, although the third group of graves, which was excavated in 2007, has not yet been searched completely. Analysing the 11th century parts of the cemetery, it can be stated that the necropolis in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia, which was earlier thought to be one cemetery, consists of two cemeteries, as the earliest 11th century graves cannot represent the continuation of the 10th century cemetery, where the graves of the two cemeteries overlap each other coins from a much later period, i. e. the middle or the end of the 11th century, were found. According to the coins found in the graves (coins of type H1), graves belonging to the core of the 11th century cemetery were excavated in three places, but only in the case of core is it possible to observe a radial development of the cemetery, which is indicated by the coins of type H6, H7, H8, H14. (Pl. 14) 7. A continuity of the population and/or immigration? As it has been observed the products of material culture and the furnishings in the 11th century graves in Brânduşei Street-Alba Iulia considerably differ from those found in the graves from the 10th century. The same holds for burial customs too. It can be considered the most important aspect that in the 11th century cemetery, in contrast with the 10th century graves, the W-E orientation of the graves becomes general, but at the same time the earthenware pottery representing the food and drink furnishings completely disappears from the graves. Only one custom was retained in the 11th century which can be connected to personal 46 In two cases the H1 coins of Stephen I were found together with the H8 coins of András I, which proves the later use of King Stephen's coins. The same situation can be observed in the 11th century cemeteries in Hunedoara-Kincseshegy and MoldoveneştiJósika Samu garden. 316 E. Gáll furnishings, a knife, a strike-a-light and a flint stone were laid beside the person in grave 137. So one can talk about a certain cultural disruption or discontinuity in burial customs. Apart from some quite general products of fashion (simple hair-rings, string finger rings) completely new elements appear in the material culture in the 11th century. It is important that in the 11th century cemetery the items of the new, 11th century material culture appear (hair-rings with S-shaped ends, braided and twisted rings with rhomboid and octagonal cross-sections). Along with them, in three cases objects were found that are characteristic of the 10th century material culture of the Hungarians of the time of the Conquest, mainly in a secondary role, these are completely unknown in the 10th century graves. In all the three cases they were found in child graves: in grave 129 re-used belt ornaments, in grave 145 the upper part of robe pendant and in grave 204 the shards of the upper part of a collar ornament were found together with the ornament buttons. In our opinion these furnishings in the child graves may indicate an immigration from the west. It can be presumed that that the skeletons of core I, which are dated from the first decades of the 11th century and whose furnishings are partly identical to those of the Hungarians of the 10th century, may represent 11th century immigrants. Whether these items indicate a completely new population of different origin or there was a parallel change in fashion and identity is an open question, which cannot be answered responsibly based only on archaeological evidence, it can only be answered after a comparative DNA analysis of the finds. We suppose that part of the population stayed in the same place (cemetery core II) but another population also appeared whose material culture shows close connections with that of the Hungarians of the time of the Conquest in the Great Plain 47 . Fig. 8. Cultural continuity and discontinuity according to the elements of the material culture. Legends: Gy-Br3 – Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár, Karlsburg) Brânduşei street grave 3 Nyakp1a2 – String necklets made from one string, thin; Gomb1 – Simple round button with ears and a handle at the end; Haj1 – simple lockring (1a); Karp2a – Simple string bracelet (2a); Sarló – sickle; Gyür4a – Closed, simple finger ring with circular cross-section (4a1); Gyür3b – Knobbed ring, twisted in a spiral (3i); Kés – knive; Csat1 – lyreshaped buckle; Ker. – clay pot; Haj4 – closed lockring (3); Csihacél – strike-a-light; Kova – flint stone; Gyür3a – Cast, closed wire finger ring forming a pseudo-granulation ornament (3e); Gyür4a – Finger ring cast in braids (4c); Haj2 – Simple lockring with its ends bent on each other (1b); Ingver1 – round clothes mount (1); Kaftver1 – caftan mounts without the pendant (1); Nyakp1a1 – String neck lets made from one string, thick; Nyakp3 – String necklace with rhomboid crosssection (3); Ingver2 – drop shape mount (2); Ingver3 – belt ornament used for the second time – pentagonal form (3); Gyür4g – Widened strap ring with a knob (5e); Gomb2 – Ornament buttons (2); Ingver4 – shift mounts without the pendant (4); Haj5a2 – Lockrings with rectangular cross-section, with S-shaped ends (5a); Gyür1a1 – open wire ring (1a); H8 – Andrew I’s (1046-1060) coin of H8 type; H1 – Saint Stephen’s (1001-1038) coin of H1 type; Gyür5a – simple strap ring without ornaments with its ends bent on each other (5a); Nyakp2 – twisted neck lets (2); Gyür1b – braided string finger ring with hammered ends (1b); Gyür1c – braided open finger ring (1c); Gyür2a – wire finger ring with rectangular cross-section (2a); H6 – Péter Orseoló’s (1038-1041, 1044-1046) coin of H6 type; Gyür1a2 – open wire ring (1a2); Karp2d – Wire cast bracelet with rectangular cross-section (2d); Haj5c – grooved hair-rings with S-shaped ends (5d); Csörgő – rattle; Haj5a – Simple hair rings with Sshaped, flat ends (4a); H12 – Béla I’s (1060-1063) coin of H12 type; H14 – Salamon’s (1063-1074) coin of H14 type 47 See e. g.: Bálint 1991. CEMETERIES FROM THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES 317 With a statistical analysis we tried to measure the gap between the finds in the two cemeteries. We tried to compare the finds in those graves in which items of at least two types or two categories were found, registered at least in two graves. Altogether 42 types, categories or variants of items have been registered in 52 graves (18 graves date from the 10th century, 34 graves from the 11th century, but these represent only 22, 70% of the 229 graves). Except for three general types of items (simple and pear shaped hair-rings and string finger rings) no continuity can be detected in the material culture. The results shown in the chart (Fig. 8.) highlights our above analyses, i. e. except for some very general elements, there is such a wide cultural gap between the two cemeteries that can only be accounted for by assuming the appearance of a new population. 8. 1. The status of the 10th century community Either we interpret weapons and belt ornaments as the symbols of the military order or they were supposed to emphasise a male identity, no trace of them can be found in the 10th century cemetery parts in Alba Iulia. Among the 105 graves from the 10th century knives were found only in six and flint stones and strike-a-lights were found only in two graves, the rest of the furnishings belong to clothing. Any finds that could be connected to sex are not to be found in the 10th century graves as hair-rings, finger rings or even knives are not exclusively characteristic of the male gender. As for child graves (38 child graves were excavated) in most of them nothing was found that would refer to either sex. In some cases the furnishings of juvenile skeletons refer to a male as in grave 128 (knife, strike-a-light and a flint stone). Judging from the quantity of metal found in the graves, the community of the 10th century parts of the Alba Iulia necropolis could not have been the military leading class of the 10th century Transylvania, as no weapons have been found in the graves, no horse burials are known and the quantity of metal found in the graves is insignificant. Only 50 of the 105 10th century graves contain furnishings, but only in 37 of them was any quantity of metal registered (in the case of one grave we have only partial data). It is telling that only 26.29 gram of silver was found in 13 graves and 102.21 gram of bronze were found in 26 graves. The two bronze items plated with gold and weighing 6.96 gram, which were found in two graves, can be added to this. The above mentioned silver quantity is much poorer than those in the 10th century cemeteries, which can be in connection with the social status of this community. Metal content of the graves Broken down to single graves Silver and bronze content broken down to single graves Ag. 26, 29 gram Br. 102, 21 gram 0, 25 gram 0, 97 gram Broken down to 13 graves with silver furnishings: 2, 02 gram Broken down to 26 graves with bronze furnishings : 3, 93 gram Fig. 9 8. 2. The status of the 11th century community In the 10 century parts of the cemetery the lack of weapons and objects made of precious metals and the burial rites different from those of the conquering Hungarians (a complete lack of horse burials) indirectly refer to the low social status of the community and to the possibility that they might have been of different origin from the conquering Hungarians, the cemetery parts from the next century represent the characteristics of the 11th century cemeteries as in the cemeteries in Hunedoara and Moldoveneşti. Metal objects were found in 58 of the 124 graves from the 11th century, which is almost half of the 124 11th century graves (46.77%) 48 . In 35 graves some silver items were found, whose accumulated weight is 78.54 grams and 401.22 grams of bronze were found in 24 graves. It is important to mention that items made of silver were found in more graves that items of bronze (35–24), which is in stark contrast with the 10th century finds (there are much fewer silver items in them-13-26+2): th 48 We have no data on the weights of the metal objects in four 11th century graves (graves 213, 221, 224 and 227) (in one case it is a coin, unfortunately) and in two cases we only possess partial data (graves 228 and 231). E. Gáll 318 Metal content of the graves Broken down to single graves Silver and bronze content broken down to single graves Ag. 78, 84 gram Br. 401, 22 gram 0, 63 gram 3, 23 gram Broken down to 35 graves with silver furnishings: 2, 244 gram Broken down to 24 graves with bronze furnishings: 16, 71 gram Fig. 10 Concerning the quantity of metal the part of the necropolis dated by the coins from the early Árpád era perfectly fits in the group of other 11th century Transylvanian cemeteries (e. g. in the 57 graves in Hunedoara 52.1 gram of silver were found and in the 57 graves in Moldoveneşti 29.7 gram). This also indicates the status of the community of the Alba Iulia cemetery, which could have been a member of the network of villages that was established around Alba Iulia. The different quantity of metals (mainly silver) in the 10th and 11th century cemeteries may also support the theory of the cultural gap. 9. Summary The cemetery (or rather cemeteries) of 229 graves (231 skeletons) can be considered common. As only 20 % of the necropolis has been excavated so far at best, it would be hazardous to try to estimate the number of graves belonging to different generations by means of paleodemographic methods. The analysis of the burial customs seems to prove it that the burial customs of the community using the 10th century cemetery differed greatly from the customs of the conquering Hungarians. Based upon the great number of parallels it is to be presumed that such phenomena occur when a community switches from cremation burials to skeleton burials (Pl. 3). In the cemetery parts used from the beginning of the 11th century fundamental changes can be observed both in the material culture and the burial customs. The disappearance of burials with inverse orientation can be explained by the appearance of the Christian religion and a new population. Based upon the finds and burial customs found in the 11th century cemetery, it is a typical example of the 11th century cemeteries from the early Árpád age, like Moldoveneşti and Hunedoara, whose populations were settled down and organised by Stephen I in the first decades of the 11th century. Based upon these data, we can contend that the population using the cemetery from the middle third of the 10th century was different from the conquering Hungarians. At the beginning of the 11th century a new community may have arrived near this one or instead of this one, which used the necropolis until the end of the 11th century, probably until the reign of Géza I or László I. The lack of the coins of these two kings seems to support this theory. Erwin Gáll ardarichus9@yahoo.com Bibliography Cs. Bálint 1991. Südungarn im 10. Jahrhundert. Stud. Arch., 11. Budapest, 1991. B. Chropovsky B. 1957. Slovanské pohrebisko z 9. storočia vo Velkom Grobe. Slovenská Arch., V, 1957, p. 176–214. K. 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AN ANALYSIS OF THE CEMETERIES FROM THE 10th AND 11th CENTURIES IN BRÂNDUŞEI STREET, ALBA IULIA (GYULAFEHÉRVÁR, KARLSBURG). NEW THEORIES ON THE MIGRATION OF PEOPLE IN TRANSYLVANIA IN THE 10th–11th CENTURIES. In: Măgureanu, A.–Gáll, E. București, 2010, 297‒336.

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