Assyria to Iberia Art and Culture in the Iron Age 978-1-58839-606-8 T H E M E T RO P O L I TA N M U S E U M O F A RT Symposia The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia Assyria to Iberia  The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia Assyria to Iberia Art and Culture in the Iron Age Edited by Joan Aruz and Michael Seymour T h e M eT ropoliTa n MuseuM of a rT, n ew Yor k d i s T r i b u T e d b Y Ya l e u n i v e r s i T Y p r e s s , n e w h av e n a n d l o n d o n The essays in this volume are based on papers and lectures Page 40: Detail of gypsum alabaster banquet relief of presented in conjunction with the exhibition “Assyria to Ashurbanipal (see Gansell, p. 55, ig. 1 and Winter, Iberia at the Dawn of the Classical Age” on view at The p. 182, ig. 4) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from September 27, 2014, though January 4, 2015. Page 86: Syrian-style ivory plaque with hunter slaying a griin. Nimrud, Fort Shalmaneser, Room SW 37. Neo- This publication is made possible by The Adelaide Milton Assyrian period. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New de Groot Fund, in memory of the de Groot and Hawley York, Rogers Fund, 1961 (61.197.11) families. Page 204: Bronze horse frontlet with nude females. Samos, Published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heraion, area to the southeast of the Great Altar. Syrian, New York 9th century b.C. Archaeological Museum, Vathy, Samos, Mark Polizzotti, Publisher and Editor in Chief Greece (B2579/A1306) Gwen Roginsky, Associate Publisher and General Manager of Publications Page 322: Bronze cauldron and iron stand. Salamis, Peter Antony, Chief Production Manager dromos of Tomb 79. Cypro-Archaic, ca. 8th–7th century Michael Sittenfeld, Senior Managing Editor b.C. Cyprus Museum, Nicosia (T.79/202, 202[b]) Edited by Elizabeth Franzen The Metropolitan Museum of Art endeavors to respect Designed implemented by Duke & Company, Inc., copyright in a manner consistent with its nonproit Devon, Pennsylvania, based on a format established by educational mission. If you believe any material has been Tsang Seymour Design Inc. included in this publication improperly, please contact the Production by Christopher Zichello Publications and Editorial Department. Bibliography edited by Philomena Mariani Image acquisitions and permissions by Blair Fowlkes- Copyright © 2016 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Childs and Jane Tai New York Maps on pp.x-xvi, 34, 89, 102, 196, and 209 by Anandaroop Roy First printing Photographs of works in the Metropolitan Museum’s All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be collection are by the Imaging Department, reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, unless otherwise electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, noted. recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Additional photography credits appear on page 349. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Typeset in Monotype Bembo 1000 Fifth Avenue Printed on 128 gsm Neo Star New York, New York 10028 Separations by Embassy Graphics, Winnipeg, Canada metmuseum.org Printed and bound by SICP, Guangzhou, China Jacket illustration: Gilded silver bowl with Egyptianizing Distributed by motifs. Said to be from Kourion (the Kourion Treasure). Yale University Press, New Haven and London Cypro-Phoenician, late 8th–early 7th century b.C. The yalebooks.com/art Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, The Cesnola yalebooks.co.uk Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76 (74.51.4554) Cataloguing-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. Frontispiece: Phoenician-style ivory plaque with gold leaf ISBN 978-1-58839-606-8 and inlaid semiprecious stones and vitreous material depicting a lioness attacking a youth. Nimrud, Northwest Palace, well in Room MM. Neo-Assyrian period, 9th–8th century b.C. The Trustees of the British Museum, London (ME 127412) Page 2: Detail of gypsum alabaster relief showing ships transporting cedar logs from Tyre. Khorsabad, palace of Sargon II, facade n. Neo-Assyrian, reign of Sargon II. Musée du Louvre, Paris (AO 19889) Page 12: Bronze wheeled vessel stand. Cyprus. Late Bronze Age, 1250–1100 b.C. The Trustees of the British Museum, London (GR 1946,1017.1) Contents Contributors to the Volume vii Acknowledgments viii Maps x Chronology xvi Introduction Joan Aruz 3 i. froM bronze To iron Joan Aruz Bronze to Iron: Art in Transition 14 Ann E. Killebrew The World of the Philistines and Other “Sea Peoples” 30 ii. assYria and babYlonia Paul Collins The Face of the Assyrian Empire: Mythology and the Heroic King 42 Amy Rebecca Gansell Imperial Fashion Networks: Royal Assyrian, Near Eastern, Intercultural, and Composite Style Adornment from the Neo-Assyrian Royal Women’s Tombs at Nimrud 54 Michael Seymour The Empire in the Palace: Campaign Reliefs in the Southwest Palace at Nineveh and an Assyrian Microcosm 65 Marc Van De Mieroop Scholars and Scholarship in Assyria and Babylonia, or: What If Socrates Had Studied Cuneiform? 81 iii. sYria, The levanT, and The phoeniCian expansion Jonathan N. Tubb A New Millennium —A New Order: Philistines, Phoenicians, Aramaeans, and the Kingdom of Israel 88 Ronny Reich The City of David in Jerusalem and Its Phoenician Connection 104 Israel Finkelstein The Levant and the Eastern Mediterranean in the Early Phases of the Iron Age: The View from Micro-Archaeology 112 Mirko Novák Assyrians and Aramaeans: Modes of Cohabitation and Acculturation at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 123 Aslı Özyar Phoenicians and Greeks in Cilicia? Coining Elite Identity in Iron Age Anatolia 136 María Eugenia Aubet Phoenician Politics in Colonial Context: Pyrgi Again 147 Marsha Hill Tribal Dynamics, Child Gods, Festivals, and the Faraway Goddess: Mingling in the Egyptian Delta in the Third Intermediate Period 154 Eric Gubel Crossing Continents: Phoencian Art and How to Read It 168 Irene J. Winter The “Woman at the Window”: Iconography and Inferences of a Motif in First-Millennium b.c. Levantine Ivory Carving 180 Sarah B. Graf The Art of the Elephant and Its Consequences 194 iv. arT of The “orienTalizing” period: greeCe, CYprus, and iTalY John Boardman The Age of Heroes: Greeks and Phoenicians on the Wine-Dark Sea 206 Ann C. Gunter Contemplating an Empire: Artistic Responses to the Neo-Assyrian World 216 Marian H. Feldman Consuming the East: Near Eastern Luxury Goods in Orientalizing Contexts 227 Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier Greek Sanctuaries and the Orient 234 Annie Caubet Between Orient and Occident: The Iconography of Cyprus (ca. 800 – 600 b.c.) 251 Nassos Papalexandrou From Lake Van to the Guadalquivir: Monsters and Vision in the Pre-Classical Mediterranean 263 Hartmut Matthäus Metalwork from the Levant to Iberia during the Early First Millennium b.c. 273 Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis Eleutherna on Crete: The Wider Horizon 283 Maurizio Sannibale The Etruscan Orientalizing: The View from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb 296 Carolina López-Ruiz Greek Literature and the Lost Legacy of Canaan 316 v. epilogue Zainab Bahrani Assyria to Iberia: Closing Remarks 324 Bibliography 332 Photograph and Illustration Credits 359 Contributors to the Publication Joan Aruz, Curator in Charge, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art María Eugenia Aubet, Professor and Chair of Prehistory Department, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona Zainab Bahrani, Edith Porada Professor of Ancient Near Eastern Art and Archaeology, Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University John Boardman, Emeritus Lincoln Professor of Classical Art and Archaeology, Classical Art Research Centre and The Beazley Archive, University of Oxford Annie Caubet, Professor, Ecole du Louvre, and Curator Emerita, Département des Antiquités Orientales, Musée du Louvre Paul Collins, Jaleh Hearn Curator for Ancient Near East, Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford Marian Feldman, Professor, Departments of the History of Art and Near Eastern Studies, Johns Hopkins University Israel Finkelstein, Professor of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University Amy Rebecca Gansell, Assistant Professor, Art and Design, St. John’s University Sarah B. Graf, Associate Curator, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Eric Gubel, Director, Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels Ann C. Gunter, Bertha and Max Dressler Professor in the Humanities, Department of Art History, Northwestern University Marsha Hill, Curator, Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Ann E. Killebrew, Associate Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Jewish Studies, and Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University Carolina López-Ruiz, Associate Professor, Department of Classics, The Ohio State University Hartmut Matthäus, Senior Fellow, Institut f ür Klassische Archäologie, Friedrich-Alexander- Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier, Director Emeritus, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Athen Mirko Novák, Professor, Institut f ür Archäologische Wissenschaften, Universität Bern, Aslı Özyar, Director of Tarsus-Gözlükule Excavations, and Professor, Department of History, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul Nassos Papalexandrou, Associate Professor, Department of Art and Art History, The University of Texas at Austin Ronny Reich, Professor, Department of Archaeology, University of Haifa Maurizio Sannibale, Curator, Reparto per le Antichità Etrusco-Italiche e il Museo Gregoriano Etrusco dei Musei Vaticani Michael Seymour, Assistant Curator, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis, Professor of Archaeology, University of Crete, and Director, Museum of Cycladic and Ancient Greek Art, Athens Jonathan N. Tubb, Keeper, Department of the Middle East, The British Museum Marc Van De Mieroop, Professor, Department of History, Columbia University Irene J. Winter, William Dorr Boardman Professor of Fine Arts Emerita, Department of History of Art and Architecture, Harvard University vii  Acknowledgments The exhibition “Assyria to Iberia at the Groot Fund, in memory of the de Groot and Dawn of the Classical Age,” on view in Hawley families. Our colleagues in the Edu- 2014–15, and its extensive catalogue, focused cation Department and Concerts and Lec- attention on the varieties of interaction across tures at The Met helped ensure the success of western Asia and the Mediterranean during the various programs, and special thanks go the early centuries of the irst millennium to Joseph Loh and Jennifer Mock. b.C. The success of the project relied to a We are very pleased that, with these essays, great extent on the ability to secure extraor- we are able to make another contribution to dinary loans from museums across the vast the Museum’s symposium series, three years span of the Mediterranean region and on after the publication of Cultures in Contact: contributions by many colleagues from these From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the institutions, thanks to the generosity of our Second Millennium b.c. We would like to major donors: The Hagop Kevorkian Fund, thank Mark Polizzotti and Michael Sittenfeld spearheaded by the commitment of Ralph D. of the Publications and Editorial Department Minasian; the Stavros Niarchos Foundation; for their assistance in bringing this volume to Dorothy and Lewis B. Cullman; and an completion. As with the Assyria to Iberia Anonymous Foundation, as well as to cata- catalogue, Christopher Zichello has done logue supporters The Andrew W. Mellon masterful work in production and contrib- Foundation, The Hagop Kevorkian Fund, uted his expertise with images and layout. and the A. G. Leventis Foundation. For the Elizabeth Franzen devoted much time, rich programming that accompanied this energy, and skill to the careful editing of this show, we would irst like to thank the Direc- volume, with the assistance of Anne Rebecca tor of The Met, Thomas P. Campbell, for his Blood, Elizabeth Gordon, Frances Malcolm, support. The major event was a two-day and Amelia Kutschbach. Anandaroop Roy symposium, which was preceded by the created the exhibition catalogue maps and Charles K. Wilkinson lectures, both made has kindly adapted them for the purposes of possible by the many friends of Charles K. this volume, Philomena Mariani prepared the Wilkinson and of The Metropolitan Museum bibliography and endnotes, and Jane Tai han- of Art. The keynote address for the sympo- dled image rights. Special thanks to Anne sium was part of the Armand Brunswick Rebecca Blood who, as project manager, Distinguished Lectures in Archaeology of ensured that the volume moved forward. The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Founda- In the Department of Ancient Near tion, Inc. Our loyal Friends of Inanna, who Eastern Art, we are extremely grateful for also contributed to the exhibition funding, the careful work and dedication of Blair supported a Scholar’s Day Workshop. The Fowlkes-Childs, who provided expert assis- publication of papers presented during these tance and support on many aspects of this events and a series of lectures dedicated to volume, particularly image and bibliographic topics related to the show — including the research, and Elizabeth Knott, Hagop work of Ronny Reich, funded by the Friends Kevorkian Research Associate, who dili- of the Israel Antiquities Authority — are gently researched the maps for both the collected in this volume and published with exhibition catalogue and the present volume, the support of The Adelaide Milton de while providing other essential research viii assistance. Anne Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi, always responding to our queries with expe- Hagop Kevorkian Research Associate, helped dience and good cheer. Their contributions with French to English accurate translation. enriched the presentation of the exhibition Tim Healing and Cristina Velásquez Murri- and relect the complexities of an era of eta provided critical support throughout the ancient civilization that is best understood project, and their work on numerous phases when its various aspects are considered from of the programing is greatly appreciated. a “global” perspective, as we endeavored to Finally, we would like to thank all the con- do in our journey from Assyria to Iberia. tributors to Assyria to Iberia: Art and Culture in the Iron Age, who worked closely with us, Joan Aruz and Michael Seymour ix  Marseilles ETRURIA Vetulonia Corsica Adriatic Sea Pyrgi Caere Alalia Rome Praeneste Atlantic Ocean IBERIA Sardinia Pontecagnano Madrid nds isla Tharros ric lea GR Ba Ibiza Lisbon da lquivir Gua Bajo de la Campana Motya Sicily Huelva (Tartessos?) El Carambolo Algiers Carthage Gadir/Cádiz Tunis of Gib raltar Strait Lixus Rabat Tripoli Taucheira LIBYA S a h a r a D e s e r t The Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean in the First Millennium With Select Second-Millennium Sites Map showing place-names cited in the essays. Archaeological site Modern city Shipwreck  Cauc Black Sea asus Mountains Caspian Sea Istanbul Troy Ankara Hattusa Karmir Blur Yerevan EECE Aegean Sea Gordion Lefkandi A N AT O L I A Lake Delphi Eretria Sardis Van Van Corinth Samos Ephesos Athens Marash OlympiaMycenae Miletos ASSYRIA Tau Carchemish Arslan Tash Hasanlu Sparta Cyclades r us M Musasir t ns Amanus Tell Halaf Mosul Nineveh Rhodes Mtns Aleppo Tell al Rimah Uluburun Nimrud Crete Ugarit Eleutherna Knossos CyprusSalamis SYRIA Tehran M Ashur Kirkuk Mount Ida Prinias Nicosia ES Kition O NT PO Byblos Eu TA M e d Beirut ph MI i t e r ra VA r a n e a Sidon te A Za n Baghdad Tell Asmar S e a gr s Damascus LE Tyre Tig os Cyrene r is M Megiddo Babylon ou Samaria Dilbat Susa Tobruk Amman nt BABYLONIA ai Jerusalem Uruk ns Lachish Naukratis Tanis Ur Cairo Memphis Herakleopolis EGYPT Tell el-Amarna Persian Gulf N ile Deir el-Medina Thebes Medinet Habu Tôd ARABIA Riyadh Dakka Red Sea Abu Simbel NUBIA Kerma Jebel Barkal Nuri el-Kurru KUSH Meroë Khartoum Sana'a Arabian Sea  Iberia Atlantic Ocean ds an isl r ic Aliseda Berzocana ea al B Ibiza Medi terranean quivir adal Castulo Se a Gu El Carambolo Bajo de la Campana La Joya Huelva (Tartessos?) Seville/Spal Málaga Toscanos Gadir/Cádiz Cerro del Villar ar Gibralt it of Stra Lixus Greece and Western Anatolia MACE D ONIA CHAL KID IK E Mount Olympos Troy PH RYGIA Dodona TH E SSALY Gordion Pherai Aegean Lesbos Sea LOKRIS Skyros LYDI A Abai/Kalapodi Tragana PHOKIS Ptoon Euboia Ithaca Delphi B O I OT I A Lefkandi Sardis Eretria Kephallenia Thebes IO NI A Perachora Eleusis PE Corinth Isthmia Athens Ephesos LO Olympia Mycenae Lavrion Samos Priene PO Argos Miletos NN Delos Didyma Sparta ES CARI A E Cyclades Elmalı D Ialysos od Thera Kameiros ec n Lindos a es e Rhodes Axos Fortetsa Panormon Tylissos M e d i t e r ra n e a n S e a Stavromenos Khaniale Tekke Crete Eleutherna Knossos Mount Ida Dreros Phaistos Mochlos Kommos Arkades/Afrati Prinias Ida Cave  Bisenzio Verucchio Central Mediterranean Casale Marittimo San Severino Marche Poggio Civitate Vetulonia Sarteano Poggio Buco Corsica Marsiliana E TRURIA Adriatic Sea Vulci Civita Castellana Alalia Tarquinia Narce Pyrgi Veii Monte Aguzzo Caere Praeneste Ficana LAT I UM Rocca di Papa Laurentina Acqua Acetosa Satricum Castel di Decima Capua CA MPANI A Cumae Pithekoussai Bay Ischia of Pontecagnano Sardinia Naples Cala Gonone Tharros Francavilla Marittima Monte Sa Idda Bithia Nora Palermo Solunto Motya Sicily Mediterranean Sea Carthage Malta Urartu and the Syro-Hittite States COLCHIS Black Sea Lake Abant Karmir Blur Hattusa PHRYGIA URARTU Gordion Mt. Ararat Lake Eski Acigöl crater Van Amida Giricano GURGUM I˙vriz TUWANA Marash Kashiyari Karatepe Incirli Mtns Hasanlu • Adana Zincirli CARCHEMISH Arslan BIT BAHIANI Nisibis QUE SAM'AL Carchemish Tash Harran Tell Fekheriye Tig Çineköy Misis Deve Höyük Til Barsip Tell Halaf/Guzana ri s Amanus Mtns Kahat Khorsabad Arsuz ‘Ain Dara BIT Nineveh Tell Bderi ADINI Tell Sheik Hassan Tabete PATIN BIT AGUSI Tell Tayinat Nimrud Balikh Alalakh Aleppo Tell Šadikanni Emar Munbaqa ASSYRIA Ebla r O ro n t e bu Apameia Ashur Kha Cyprus HAMATH s Hamath Eu Homs Terqa ph Sumur/Tell Kazel ra tes Mari Mediterranean Sea ARAM-DAMASCUS  Ugarit Cyprus Apameia Lapithos Platani Patriki Tweini O Kazaphani Tell Sukas r Athienou Salamis on Idalion Enkomi Qadboun Hamath tes Marion Tamassos KitionGolgoi Larnaca Arwad Tartus Qatna Paphos Amathus Amrit Kouklia/Palaepaphos Kourion Sumur/Tell Kazel Emessa/ Qadesh Homs Tell ‘Arqa Byblos Nahr el-Kalb IA Beirut IC EN Sidon Damascus Sarepta O Mediterranean Sea PH Tyre Tel Dan Kefer Varadim Hazor Akko Tel Hadar Abu Hawam Tiberias Sea of Galilee Atlith Nazareth Tel Dor Jezreel Megiddo Beth Shean Ramoth Gilead Ta‘anach Pella Jatt ISRAEL Tel Rehov Samaria Tell es- Tell Qasile Aphek Sa‘idiyeh Joppa Beth Tel Batash Gezer Shemesh Jericho Tel Miqne-Ekron Jerusalem Ashdod AMMON Ramat Rahel Ashkelon IA JUDAH Dead ST Gaza Maresha ILI Lachish Sea PH Nile Delta Beersheba Tell el-Far’ah (S) Arad Aro‘er MOAB Sais Tanis Naukratis Mendes Kom Firin Piramesse EDOM Avaris N e g e v Khirbet en-Nahas Bubastis/Tell Basta Feinan Heliopolis Saqqara Memphis S i n a i Timna e N il Herakleopolis Hermopolis Levant, Cyprus, and the Nile Valley  Gordion PHRYGIA Karmir Blur URARTU Lake Van Caspian Sea SYRO-HITTITE Amida Elmalı STATES Tarsus Zincirli C ILIC IA Carchemish Arslan Tash Nisibis Hasanlu Nagidos Kelenderis Til Barsip Tell Halaf Khorsabad Al Mina Qarqar Nineveh Ziwiye Nimrud Cyprus Hamath E Ashur up area of detail, below MEDIA hr at Byblos es M ed ite r ra nean Se a PHOENICIA Sidon Damascus LU R I STA N Tyre Sippar Tig r is Samaria ISRAEL Babylon PHILISTIA Jerusalem BABYLONIA Susa Tanis Lachish JUDAH Nippur ELAM Bubastis Uruk Ur Memphis CHALDEA LOWER EGYPT Persian Gulf Ni UPPER ARAB I A le EGYPT Red Karnak Sea Thebes Assyrian World Maltai Khinnis/Bavian Tell Deir Situn Dur-Sharrukin/Khorsabad ab rZ ate Gre Nineveh Imgur-Enlil/Balawat Arbela/Erbil T ig Kalhu/Nimrud ris b Za er ss Le Ashur/Qal‘at Sherqat Assyrian Heartland C HRO NO LOGY, 1 20 0 – 4 0 0 B.C . (all dates are approximate) Mesopotamia Iran Syria and the Levant Anatolia / North Syria 1200 BaBylonia Iron Age II, 1250 – 800 Iron Age I, 1200 – 900 Syro-Hittite and Aramaean Nebuchadnezzar I (1125 – 1104) Sea Peoples incursions kingdoms, 1200 – 800 Assyria Traditional date of Trojan War, Tiglath-Pileser I (1114 – 1076) 1184 1100 1000 Neo-Babylonian period, 1000 – 539 Neo-Elamite period, 1000 – 539 Philistine city-states founded in 10th century Neo-Assyrian empire, 911 – 612 Adad-nirari II (911 – 891) 900 Assyria Iron Age II, 900 – 700 Ashurnasirpal II (883 – 859) Assyrian capital moved to Nimrud / Kalhu, 878 Shalmaneser III (858 – 824) Battle of Qarqar, 853 Sarduri I (840 – 830) founds royal Hazael of Aram-Damascus dynasty of Urartu (843 – 806) 800 Assyrian rule in Babylonia, 729 – 625 Iron Age III, 800 – 550 Urartu Argishti I (785 / 780 – 756) Assyria Sarduri II (756 – 730) Tiglath-Pileser III (744 – 727) Rusa I (730 – 714 / 713) Sargon II (721 – 705) Phrygia Assyrian capital moved to Khorsabad / Midas (contemporary with Sargon II Dur-Sharrukin, 717 of Assyria) BaBylonia Assyria conquers Samaria, 722 Marduk-apla-iddina II, 721 – 711 Assyria conquers Philistine Assyrian sack of Haldi Temple, Assyria city-states, 714 – 712 Musasir, 714 Sennacherib (704 – 681) Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh / Assyrian sieges of Lachish and Kuyunjik, 704 Jerusalem, 701 700 Iron Age III, 700 – 550 Urartu Rusa II (irst half of 7th century) Sennacherib destroys Babylon, 689 Lydia Mermnad dynasty, 680 – 546 Assyria Battle of Til Tuba, 653 Esarhaddon (680 – 669) Ashurbanipal (668 – 627) Assyrian sack of Susa, 646 War between Ashurbanipal and Shamash- shuma-ukin, 652 – 649 Median empire, 625 – 550 Fall of Nineveh, 612 BaBylonia Nabopolassar (626 – 605) Neo-Babylonian kingdom, 626 – 612 Neo-Babylonian empire, 612 – 539 Nebuchadnezzar II (604 – 562) Babylonian rule, 605 – 539 Battle of Carchemish, 605 600 Babylonian sack of Jerusalem and Lydia Nabonidus (555 – 539) destruction of Temple, 587 Croesus (560 – 546) Persian conquest of Babylon, 539 Achaemenid dynasty, 559 – 330 Achaemenid rule, 550 – 330 Achaemenid rule, 546 – 330 Achaemenid rule, 539 – 330 Bisutun relief of Darius I, 521 500 Ionian Revolt, 499 – 498  Egypt Cyprus Greece Western Mediterranean Ramesses III (1184 – 1153) Late Bronze Age, 1600 – 1050 Late Helladic (LH) IIIC period on Spain mainland / Late Minoan (LM) IIIC Middle and Later Bronze Age, 1500 – 700 period on Crete, 1200 – 1125 Third Intermediate Period, Phoenician colonies on Cyprus, Sub-Mycenaean period on 1070 – 712 (or 664)* ca. 1100 mainland / Sub-Minoan period on Crete Dynasty 21, 1070 – 945 Cypro-Geometric period, 1050 – 750 Libyan period / Dynasty 22, Protogeometric period, 1000 – 900 Italy 945 – 712 Iron Age, 1000 – 750 Lefkandi “heroon,” 950 Sheshonq I (945 – 924) Osorkon I (924 – 889) Tekke bowl, late 10th – early 9th century Geometric period, 900 – 700 Italy Villanovan culture, 900 – 500 Osorkon II (874 – 850) Phoenician colony at Kition founded, mid-9th century Sardinia Earliest possible date for Nora stele (see cat. 98) North AfriCa Traditional date of foundation of Carthage, 814 Iliad and Odyssey composed, Spain 8th – 7th century Tartessian rule, 800 – 540 Salamis “royal” tombs, 8th – 7th century Olympic games established, 776 Italy Cypro-Archaic I period, 750 – 600 Etruscan culture, 750 – 90 Orientalizing period, 750 – 600 Orientalizing period, 750 – 575 Nestor’s cup inscription, 750 – 725 Kushite period / Dynasty 25, 712 – 664 Cypriot kings pay tribute to Sargon II, Late period, 712 – 332 707 Spain Iron Age, 700 – 200 Taharqo (690 – 664) Assyria invades Egypt, 671 – 663 Saite period / Dynasty 26, 664 – 525 Mazarrón shipwrecks, second half of 7th century Greek settlement at Naukratis, second half of 7th century Bajo de la Campana shipwreck, Necho II (610 – 595) late 7th – early 6th century Cypro-Archaic II period, 600 – 480 Archaic period, 600 – 480 Italy Archaic period, 575 – 490 Amasis (Ahmose II) (570 – 526) Egyptian rule, 570 – 526 Polykrates of Samos (538 – 522) Achaemenid rule, 526 – 333 Achaemenid rule, 525 – 404 Cypro-Classical period, 480 – 310 Classical period, 480 – 323 Italy Classical period, 490 – 300 *See Hill in Aruz et al. 2014, pp. 198 – 201. I nT roduC Ti on Mirko Novák The irst half of the irst millennium b.C. in the Near East was characterized by two developments: irst, the rise and unrivalled dominance of the Assyrian empire, the larg- est political entity yet seen in the region, until its dramatic collapse at the end of the Assyrians and seventh century b.C.; and second, the appear- ance of the Aramaeans and the difusion of their language and script throughout Meso- Aramaeans: Modes of Cohabitation potamia, the Levant, parts of Iran, and Egypt. Despite the political supremacy of Akkadian- speaking Assyria, Aramaic imposed itself as a lingua franca in the Near East, a role it held for more than a millennium. How do these two phenomena it and Acculturation at together? Should we not have expected the cuneiform script and the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language to predominate across Guzana (Tell Halaf ) the Assyrian empire? How could the Ara- maic language have become so dominant given that there was never an Aramaean territories outside its heartland proper and a empire? few provinces on the lower Khabur River. To answer this question in a short article Among its major opponents from the twelfth we must limit the discussion to one single century b.C. onward were Aramaean tribes example. For this purpose, no other site pro- who irst attacked Assyria at its Euphrates vides better information than Tell Halaf, the River border and later penetrated its western ancient city of Guzana. It was founded as provinces up to the springs of the Khabur the capital of a small Aramaean principality, and even beyond the Kashiyari Mountains to later became the seat of the governor of one the Tigris River. The Aramaean tribes of the most prosperous Assyrian provinces, formed a number of principalities in the and ultimately was one of the few Upper Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, from Mesopotamian towns that survived the col- Damascus to Amida, and Sam’al to Nasibina lapse of the Assyrian empire and lourished (Nisibis) (ig. 1).2 until the Parthian period.1 The ethnogenesis of the Aramaeans remains a mystery. Their origin in the Th e E M e rg e nC e of Th e A raMa ean s steppes of the Arabian plateau has long been Dramatic events caused and accompanied the posited, although no solution has ever pro- collapse of the political and economic sys- vided an explanation as to how an Aramaean tems of the Late Bronze Age eastern Medi- population could have grown in such a dry terranean and Near East. Migrations of and economically disadvantaged region. In several peoples had already begun during the more recent studies the possibility of locat- late thirteenth century b.C. as symptom and ing an ethnogenesis in the northern Levant result rather than as reason for the crises that has become more popular, implying a popu- afected and inally terminated great powers lation continuum from the Late Bronze to such as the Hittite empire and the Egyptian the Iron Age with changing social structures New Kingdom. Assyria was the only major and subsistence strategies.3 One argument is kingdom to survive, but it sufered consider- the ailiation of the Aramaic language with ably, losing control over almost all of its Northwest Semitic languages of the second 123  Fig. 1. Map of Luwian-Aramaean principalities, ca. 900 b.C. millennium, such as Ugaritic, making the the displacement of the autochthonous connection with Canaanite probable.4 A Semitic-speaking population from the coastal possible scenario for the creation of a dis- plains. At least some of these people may tinct “Aramaean” identity might begin with have joined already migrating nomadic and the destruction of numerous Levantine raiding groups with heterogeneous origins. towns during the migrations of Aegean and After a certain period of time, these people Anatolian people (the “Sea Peoples”) and developed a new ethnic consciousness and a 124 Novák common language, and inally a new identity The ancient town of Guzana consisted of a with particular cultural norms. As “Aramae- citadel, situated immediately at the river, and ans” they became associated with raiding an extended lower town, enclosing the cita- nomadic tribes at the margins of Assyria del to the west, south, and east. Together, the and Babylonia. Iron Age settlement covers an area of approx- imately 75 hectares intra muros. Although the G u zana as CapiTal of an settlement existed before the foundation of A raMa ean P ri nC i pal iTY the Aramaean principality, a radical realign- Among the newly established Aramaean ment took place. The rectangular citadel was principalities was Pale, also known as Bit subdivided into a lower part toward its Bahiani. Its capital at modern Tell Halaf was entrance, and a more elevated inner part to named gwzn (Gōzāna) or “transition place” 5 its north. This feature is reminiscent of the (Gūzāna in the cuneiform texts) and located citadels in Carchemish located on the Euphra- in Upper Mesopotamia on the springs of the tes, Sam’al on the Islahiye Plain, and Kinalua Khabur, the major tributary of the Euphra- in the Amuq.9 The former necropolis of the tes. One of the main trade routes connecting earliest settlers was overbuilt by the residential Assyria with the northern Levant and the area, which included the palace and a monu- Mediterranean passed through the region mental gateway. A new necropolis was estab- and was known in Neo-Assyrian times as the lished at the southern edge of the citadel. harrān šarri (King’s Road). Today, the site lies Instead of inhumation burials — attested in the immediately south of the Syrian-Turkish pre-Aramaean Iron Age town — cremations border, near the modern twin towns of Ras became popular, following a practice known al-‘Ayn (Syria) and Ceylanpınar (Turkey). from northern Levantine and southern Ana- Tell Halaf was irst occupied in the Neo- tolian sites, such as Carchemish, Deve Höyük, lithic period, and today it has become the and Hamath. Of particular interest are the eponymous site of a widely distributed ancestor cult statues discovered on top of two archaeological culture characterized by its cremation burials depicting seated women, painted pottery.6 During the Bronze Age, the each holding a cup in one hand (ig. 2). The site was left abandoned in favor of the neigh- style and iconography, as well as the function boring Tell Fekheriye, the ancient city of of these statues, relect a northern Levantine Washshukanni.7 The Middle Assyrian pro- tradition that goes back to the early second vincial administration, which resided in millennium b.C. and is represented in several Washshukanni (Assyrian Ashshukanni), may objects discovered at Ebla and Qatna (see have stimulated the irst re-settling of Tell Sannibale essay, p. 310, ig. 17).10 This conti- Halaf after two thousand years, and when it nuity is an argument for an indigenous was presumably founded as a town for Ana- Levantine ethnogenesis of the Aramaeans. tolian prisoners of war and deportees.8 The most impressive remains dating to this In the tenth century b.C., the area of the period can be attributed to king Kapara springs of the Khabur (in Akkadian ša rēš īnā (ca. 925 b.C.), from whose palace a number ša Hābūr, meaning the same as Arabic ra’s al- of orthostat reliefs survive, as well as several ‘ayn “Head of the Springs of the Khabur”) inscriptions. The palace, situated in the west- was invaded and occupied by an Aramaean ern part of the citadel, was constructed in the tribe, later known as Bit Bahiani to the style of the hilani buildings (igs. 3, 4). This Assyrians, who established a small entity type of building is characterized by a tripar- named palê (Pale) in its own inscriptions. tite structure with an entrance hall opening The Aramaeans decided not to reside in through a broad, columned gateway and Ashshukanni (by now called Sikani) but lanked by two tower-like rooms. The central instead to realign the town in Tell Halaf, reception hall was accessible directly from the thereby creating a new residential city. entrance room. This architectural pattern was Assyrians and Aramaeans at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 125  developed in the northern Levant (presum- ably in the Islahiye and Amuq Plains) during the Bronze Age and became popular in the Luwo-Aramaean (“Neo-Hittite” 11) world during the Iron Age. Kapara’s known inscriptions are relatively short and were written exclusively in the Akkadian language using cuneiform by a scribe with the Assyrian name Abdi-iliya; hence the local tradition of using cuneiform, dating back to the time of the Middle Assyr- ian administration, appears to have survived. The inscriptions reveal some Neo-Assyrian characteristics comparable to those discov- ered in the foundation inscription of gover- nor Assur-kette-līšir from Tell Bdēri in the lower Khabur and to those in the texts from Giricano on the Upper Tigris, both dating to the eleventh or tenth century b.C.12 No Aramaic inscriptions are known from Kapa- ra’s reign; presumably this script was not yet developed, or at least not known in Upper Mesopotamia. The earliest example from Tell Halaf was written on a small altar or statue base and dates to the early ninth century b.C.,13 followed by the famous Tell Fekheriye bilingual statue inscription (see below). Despite the use of Akkadian cuneiform instead of alphabetic Aramaic, both textual and archaeological evidence clearly suggest a western origin or at least a strong western ailiation for Kapara’s dynasty. One indicator is the usage of the word ekallum to designate “temple” in some of Kapara’s inscriptions, which mention é.gal.lim u — “(to) the Temple of the Storm-God.” The usage of this term is typical for West Semitic languages (compare Ugaritic hkl and Hebrew hekal ), whereas the correct Akkadian term was é = bītu. In Assyria and Babylonia ekallu meant exclusively “palace.” Another indicator is the palace’s architecture, which follows the hilani style, and the new use of orthostat reliefs, both characteristics of the so-called “Neo- Hittite” culture of the northern Levant and Fig. 2. Basalt statue of seated woman. Guzana (Tell Halaf ), discovered on southern Anatolia, and previously unattested top of a cremation. Syro-Hittite, early 9th century b.C. Max Freiherr von in Upper Mesopotamia. The same is true of Oppenheim-Stiftung, Cologne (TH B 1); on long-term loan to the the new funerary customs, which replaced Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Vorderasiatisches Museum inhumation with cremation and involved 126 Novák Fig. 3. Digital reconstruction of the hilani of king Kapara at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) Fig. 4. Reconstruction of the caryatid entrance of the hilani at Guzana (Tell Halaf), National Museum of Aleppo, Syria Assyrians and Aramaeans at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 127  of the god statues and orthostats shows some Mitannian and Middle Assyrian elements, deeply anchored in the culture of the region.15 The same is true of the worship of local dei- ties like the storm god in his aspect as Bēl hābūr (“Lord of the Khabur”) and his spouse Šala,16 and, most signiicantly, the use of the cuneiform script and the Assyrian language. This was presumably inherited from an extant local scribal tradition, as the Assyrian name of Kapara’s scribe suggests. The emer- gence of the Aramaic script, developed from Phoenician in the Levant, apparently began later than the foundation of Aramaean Guzana. However, in the ninth-century b.C. altar inscription mentioned above, Tell Halaf provides us with one of the earliest pieces of evidence for Aramaic script known to this day. C ohab iTaTi on and A s sY ri ani zaTi on : Th e A s sY ri an P rovi nC i al Tow n In the early ninth century b.C. Guzana was incorporated into the Assyrian empire.17 A new Assyrian-style palace was built in the eastern part of the citadel and renewed in the eighth century (ig. 5).18 An Assyrian-style temple founded in the lower town and the residential quarters both on the citadel and in Fig. 5. Plan of Assyrian Governor’s Palace, Guzana the lower town display features that are typi- (Tell Halaf ) cal of Assyrian architecture.19 Almost all of the artifacts — ceramics, sealings, and other objects — were produced exclusively in an the practice of an elaborate ancestor cult, Assyrian style.20 Was the town now com- focused on a speciic type of statue. More- pletely Assyrianized, obliterating all traces of over, the radical urban rearrangement that its former Aramaean character? Not really, as pays no attention to the existing structures can be demonstrated by examination of some not only reveals a clear break in urban devel- of the statues and inscriptions. opment but also suggests it was consciously The irst is a statue with the bilingual Ara- decided to relaunch and re-create the city maic /Assyrian inscription of Hadda-yit’i/ as a genuine new political center. In all of Adda-it’ī, discovered in Tell Fekheriye, dat- these aspects the culture of Aramaean Guzana ing to the mid-ninth century b.C. (ig. 6).21 difered remarkably from the contemporary The cuneiform inscription was written in a remains of nearby settlements, such as Kahat, good ductus and language and therefore is Šadikanni, and T.ābete, sites with an unbro- surely later than Kapara’s inscriptions. Also, ken tradition from the Late Bronze Age and the Aramaic version shows a more developed a predominant Assyrian character.14 form of Aramaic than the script on the Nonetheless, some aspects of local tradi- altar.22 The title of Hadda-yit’i /Adda-it’ī and tion are visible at Guzana: the iconography his father Šamaš-nūrī is “governor” in the 128 Novák  Assyrian and “king” of Guzana in the Ara- maic version. Šamaš-nūrī was most likely identical with the homonymous eponym of the year 866; Hadda-yit’i/Adda-it’ī might possibly be identiied with Adad-rēmanni, eponym of the year 841.23 The use of both scripts and languages, the diferent titles in both versions, and the alternation of Akka- dian and Aramaean names from father to son show the still strong Aramaean character of the Assyrian province. On the other hand it suggests that Hadda-yit’i/Adda-it’ī was either a descendant of the old Aramaean elite of Guzana who was adopted by the Assyrian aristocracy and incorporated into its mag- nate system, or a member of the Assyrian elite, who, as local governor, presented him- self as an heir of the local Aramaean nobility. The second example is the statue of Kam- maki, discovered during building activities in the late 1990s in the southeastern lower town of ancient Guzana (ig. 7).24 Stylistically it can be attributed to the local tradition of ancestor cult statues known from Kapara’s period. The inscription is only written in Fig. 6. Stone statue of Hadda-yit’i /Adda-it’ī. Fig. 7. Stone statue of Kammaki. Guzana (Tell Sikani (Tell Fekheriye). Mid-9th century b.C. Halaf). Early 8th century b.C. Deir ez-Zor National Museum, Damascus, Syria Museum, Syria (DeZ 7970) Assyrians and Aramaeans at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 129  process of linguistic Aramaization of Assyria, which was afecting the whole empire, including its heartland. But what were the reasons for this process, and how could it proceed so undisturbed? R eas on s f or Th e A raMai zaTi on of A s sY ri a Rapid Aramaization was favored by the Assyrian imperial policy of large-scale depor- tations, whereby large parts of subjugated peoples (or at least their elites) were removed from their original territories and settled in other provinces. The purpose of this strategy was to break any resistance by erasing exist- ing cultural and political identities and replacing them with Assyrian identity.25 Guzana was afected in this way in the late eighth century b.C., as mentioned in the Bible. The city is listed among the places to which Israelites were deported after the cap- ture of Samaria:26 “In the ninth year of Hoshea (= 722 b.C.) the king of Assyria (Shalmaneser V) took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed them in Halah (Kalhu) and in Habor (Khabur) by the river of Gōzān, and in the cities of the Medes” (2 Kings 17:6).27 Some cuneiform tablets discovered in Tell Halaf and some letters written in Guzana but discovered at Kalhu and Nineveh, both post- dating the deportation, bear a number of Fig. 8. Reconstruction of wall painting showing Hebrew personal names, conirming the Assyrian cuneiform and alphabetic scribes. Til presence of Israelites.28 It is also possible that Barsip (Tell Ahmar). 8th – 7th century b.C. a similar fate had previously befallen parts of Guzana’s own elites, according to some hints in the Bible where the city is listed among Assyrian cuneiform and dates to the early punished insurgents.29 eighth century b.C., Kammaki bears an Ara- This deportation policy is well attested to maean name but the Assyrian title of rubû in the Assyrian inscriptions. One result of the (“prince”) without further indication as to movement of large populations within the his precise role or position. Presumably he vast territories of the empire was the rapid was a member of the local Aramaean elite emergence of the Aramaic script and lan- and the form of his statue manifests the per- guage as the unoicial lingua franca since the petuation of traditional local rites. majority of migrating people at least under- Both statues demonstrate that in some stood this language.30 The script was much respects Aramaean culture was still alive in easier to learn than cuneiform, and it thereby Guzana. Moreover, the population of this became more and more popular, even in town took part in the ongoing and irreversible parts of the Assyrian administration. 130 Novák Figs. 9a – d. Dockets with Aramaic inscriptions and drawings. Lower town, Guzana (Tell Halaf ). 7th century b.C. The growing inluence of Aramaic is evi- appearance of clay dockets with Aramaic denced in a letter from Sargon II to Sîn- inscriptions and stamp seal impressions in iddin, governor of Ur: almost all Neo-Assyrian ind spots from the seventh century b.C. Two examples from Tell As to what you wrote: “If it is acceptable Halaf illustrate this phenomenon.32 The [to the k]ing, let me write down and short inscriptions bear personal names in send (my messages) to the king in Ara- Aramaean and Akkadian using the Assyrian maic on letter-scrolls,” why would you limmu (eponym) dating formula (igs. 9a – d): not write and send (your messages) in this is in itself a hybrid form of record. Con- Akkadian on clay-despatches? Really, the nected with these dockets, stamp seals in despatch(es) which you write must be general became more popular, even in Meso- drawn up like this very (royal) order!31 potamia, and began to replace cylinder seals. The Aramaization of Assyria afected not Depictions from the time of Tiglath- only the “common” people and the adminis- Pileser III onward show Assyrian cuneiform tration: since noble women of Aramaean and Aramaean alphabetic scribes side by side, descent were married to some of the Assyr- testifying to the bilingualism of the adminis- ian kings,33 and presumably to other mem- tration (ig. 8). This is also clear from the bers of the aristocracy, these women and Assyrians and Aramaeans at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 131  their servants introduced western ideas, life- existence of an ethnicity are continuous pro- styles, craft products, and other elements to cesses that relect changes in self-deinition. the Assyrian court.34 New cultural or even linguistic elements might have been adopted and caused a re- E f f e C T s : A s sY ri a ’s A raMa ean deinition of cultural codes and deinitions. C haraC Te r and Th e Que sTi on of We do not have any indication that the E Th ni C I de nTiTi e s descendants of the deportees after one or two The introduction of numerous foreign peo- generations deined themselves as anything ples into the population of Assyria sublimi- other than Assyrians. Not only did the nally changed the culture of the Assyrians people change but, equally, so, too, did the themselves. This process was empowered by deinition of an “Assyrian.” Assyria’s open deinition of who an “Assyr- Thus Assyria achieved a permanent and ian” was: neither ethnic origin nor any considerable increase in its population on the legal citizenship (as in the Roman empire) one hand, but on the other it progressively were decisive; instead, only an ailiation to lost aspects of its original character. This is the empire, loyalty to the king, and one’s ful- not obvious at irst sight, when looking at illment of all obligations, such as military the oicial records of the empire that were service, mattered. A remarkable testament to produced by the elite: the Akkadian language this lexibility is to be found in the inscrip- and cuneiform script continued to be the tions of king Sargon II as he describes the oicial media for communication and foundation of his new capital Dur-Sharrukin: administration, and personal names remained in Akkadian. But when the Assyrian empire Subjects of (all) four (parts of the collapsed in 612 b.C., and its elites were either world), of foreign tongues, with killed or deported by the triumphant Baby- diferent languages without similarity, lonians and Medes, both the Akkadian lan- people from mountainous regions and guage and cuneiform script disappeared plains, so many (diferent people) as completely within a short time span. It was the light of the gods [= Šamaš], lord mainly in the heartland on the Tigris that above all, supervises, I let dwell inside the use of the Akkadian language and cunei- [my new city] on the command of form script was permanently terminated. It Ashur my lord [. . .]. Born Assyrians, survived for a short while and only under experienced in all professions, I set Babylonian domination in a few provincial above them as supervisors and guides towns in Upper Mesopotamia, one of which to teach them how to work properly was Guzana.37 Does this mean that the heart- and respect the gods and the king.35 land of Assyria was completely abandoned by its inhabitants after the sack of the big cities Although a diferentiation between long- in 612 b.C. and that any kind of Assyrian established Assyrians and new settlers is made identity vanished forever? Were the later in- here, the aim of the policy was obviously to habitants of the same region new immi- transform the latter into proper Assyrians. grants, wherever they might have come from Does this mean that the Assyrians were and whenever this happened? Obviously not, progressively replaced by the Aramaeans until since we do have some indications of a con- they were restricted to a small minority, tinuing occupation of Nineveh, Kalhu and albeit the elite? Of course not! Ethnicity is a Ashur, even if the palaces, temples, and elite category that cannot be reduced to a purely residences were deserted. Moreover, it is biological or even socially constructed ances- clear that some aspects of Assyrian culture try.36 It is deined by the consciousness of a survived. For example, the worship of the group of people and how they deine and national god Ashur enjoyed a surprising designate themselves. The formation and revival during the Parthian period centuries 132 Novák Fig. 10. Model of immigration, cohabitation, and acculturation of Aramaeans and Assyrians at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) later and must therefore never have been C onC lu si on s abandoned completely. Two reciprocal and progressive processes took The likely scenario was that most of the place during the irst half of the irst millen- “common” people survived the catastrophe nium b.C. (ig. 10). First, we must point to of 612 b.C. and lived on as subjects of the the expansion of the Assyrian empire. Vast Neo-Babylonian empire. Those aspects of areas of the Near East became part of it, Assyrian culture that were not exclusively accompanied by the difusion of Assyrian connected with the elites — unlike, for culture and the emulation of Assyrian-style example, the Akkadian language and cunei- products in all provinces and vassal states. form script — carried on as living and dis- Second, we note the emergence and difu- tinctive parts of what had then become sion of the Aramaic language and script. In Assyria’s identity. And this identity was now an exaggerated way we could speak of the strongly connected with an (eastern) Aramaic parallel processes of an Assyrianization of the dialect. Much later, the population adopted Aramaeans and an Aramaization of Assyria. Christianity, thus forming the still-existing The Assyrianization of the Aramaeans was community of Christian “Assyrians,” who in initially brought about by the political and their legends keep the remembrance of cer- military dominance of Assyria. The rulers tain Assyrian kings and heroes alive.38 of subjugated entities were required to attend This progressive change shows that mod- festivities in the capitals of Assyria (for exam- ern ethnic as well as ancient lineage-based ple, the inauguration of new palaces or deinitions are all to some extent artiicial, and cities), including public performances of trib- we should consider them as cultural, often ute deliveries. Many grew up in the Assyrian dynamic constructs rather than stable entities. palaces as hostages, given to the Assyrian Assyrians and Aramaeans at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 133  king by their fathers as part of the subjuga- 1. For a short summary of Guzana’s history, see Novák 2013b. On Til-Barsip as another example, see tion ritual. Their experience of the court Bunnens 2009. style in Kalhu, Dur-Sharrukin, and Nineveh 2. On the history and culture of the Aramaeans, deeply afected them and led them to later see Lipiński 2000 and Niehr 2014. For the relation- adopt the Assyrian style in their self- ship between Aramaeans and Assyrians in Upper representation, as expressed in their own Mesopotamia, see the various articles in Syria 86 (2009). court rituals, the architecture of their palaces, 3. See Sader 2014, pp. 20 – 21. and artistic depictions of their royalty.39 The 4. Gzella 2014, p. 71. inclusion of local Aramaean elites from the 5. Lipiński 2000, p. 119. incorporated territories into Assyria’s admin- 6. The archaeological site of Tell Halaf was discovered istrative system enforced this process, and by the German banker’s son, diplomat, and self- taught archaeologist Max Freiherr von Oppenheim Assyrian standards in architecture, art, and in 1899 and excavated in two long seasons from ceramics, as well as administration, became 1911 to 1913 and in 1929. Excavations were resumed predominant. This process stimulated the in 2006 by a Syro-German team formed by the revitalization of the cuneiform script and the General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums in oicial use of the Akkadian language in the Damascus, the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin, and the universities of Tübingen, Halle, and Bern. Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, both The dramatic events taking place in Syria made it regions where they had previously been impossible to continue ieldwork after 2010. On the abandoned as early as the twelfth century b.C. results, see Baghdo et al. 2009 and 2012, with fur- With this apparent victory of Assyria over ther references. the entire “Neo-Hittite” and Aramaean 7. Bartl and Bonatz 2013. 8. Novák 2013a, 2013b. world, however, the empire provided the 9. Novák 2014, p. 264. infrastructure for a gradual Aramaization: 10. Elsen-Novák et al. 2003. some religious concepts like the ancestor cult 11. The term “Neo-Hittite” is culturally designated and or the worship of Levantine gods like the should not indicate an ethnic determination. It is storm god of Aleppo and the moon god of deined by the conscious usage of imperial Hittite traditions in art and ideology, irrespective of the Harran not only survived in the occupied ethnic ailiation of the political elites of the territories but became more prominent entities. across the whole empire, including the heart- 12. Dornauer 2010; Fuchs 2011. land of Assyria. The Aramaic language and 13. Dankwarth and Müller 1988. script successively became the language of 14. Kühne 2009, 2013. 15. Orthmann 2002. the common people and some of the elites, a 16. Müller-Kessler and Kessler 1995. process that was facilitated and enforced by 17. On the dynamics of Assyrian expansion in Upper Assyria’s deportation policy. Mesopotamia, see Kühne 2013. In the same way as the Aramaeans were 18. Novák 2013c. politically Assyrianized by becoming subjects 19. Orthmann 2002, pp. 42 – 44; see the various contri- butions in Baghdo et al. 2012 by Winfried Orth- of the Assyrian empire — and “Assyrians” by mann, Lutz Martin, and Muhammad Fakhru, and deinition — Assyria’s character was subtly Alexander Sollee and Ralf Wartke, respectively. transformed and Aramaized. An impressive 20. See the various articles by Gabriele Elsen-Novák, example of the reciprocity of transculturation! Winfried Orthmann, Uwe Sievertsen, Alexander Sollee, and Ralf Wartke in Baghdo et al. 2009 and 2012. AC k nowle dg M e nT s 21. Abou-Assaf et al. 1982. I thank Joan Aruz and her team for inviting 22. Gzella 2014, p. 72 and passim. me to the very stimulating conference and 23. On this discussion, see Dornauer 2010, with further the publication of the proceedings. I am literature. For translations of Aramaic names into indebted to Johanna Tudeau and Ekin Kozal Akkadian, see also Naqī)a/Zaqûtu, “the pure.” 24. Röllig 2003. for improving the English of the manuscript 25. Oded 1979. and to Eva von Dassow for her very valuable 26. 2 Kings 17:6, 18:11, 19:12; Isaiah 37:12; 1 Chronicles remarks and comments. 5:26. 134 Novák 27. See also 2 Kings 18:11, 19:12; Isaiah 37:12; 1 Chron- 37. Novák 2013b, pp. 276 – 77. icles 5:26. 38. Novák and Younansardaroud 2002. 28. Becking and Novák 2015, p. 750. 39. Clear evidence is given by the monumental art rep- 29. 2 Kings 18:19 – 35, 19:12; Isaiah 37:12. resenting the style “Neo-Hittite III” according to 30. Nissinen 2014, p. 282. the deinition of Orthmann (1971), which is char- 31. CT 54 10, cited after Dietrich 2003 (= SAA 1), acterized by the strong impact of Assyrian iconog- p. xvi (Introduction), treated again in SAA 17, p. 5 raphy and style. This process had already started in (text no. 2, lines 13 – 21). the ninth century b.C., as the famous stele of Kila- 32. See the contributions of Wolfgang Röllig and muwa of Sam’al shows. Even in the cases of princi- Gabriele Elsen-Novák in Baghdo et al. 2012. palities engaged in open political opposition to or 33. Nissinen 2014, pp. 294 – 95. military conlict with Assyria, conscious copies of 34. Bonatz 2004b. On Aramaean craftsmen in Assyria, Assyrian style can be observed. Assyrian culture see also Nissinen 2014, pp. 287 – 88. On non- became synonymous with power and success, just Assyrian features of the Nimrud gold, see Gansell’s like the French court style during the reign of essay in this volume, pp. 54 – 64. Louis XIV. 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London. 358 Assyria to Iberia Photograph and Illustration Credits Photographs of objects in museums fig. 14: © The Israel Museum, Roy, after Tubb 2006, with modifi- Aubet: fig. 1: Moscati and in Greece are courtesy Hellenic Jerusalem, photo: Elie Posner cations by Jonathan N. Tubb Pallottino 1966, fig. 2: Moscati Ministry of Culture and Sports. and Pallottino 1966, pl. II; figs. 3a, Photographs of objects in museums Collins: figs. 1, 5: bpk, Berlin / Reich: fig. 1: Megalim—The City 4a: Universal Images Group / Art in Iraq are courtesy State Board of Vorderasiatisches Museum, of David Institute for Jerusalem Resource, NY; figs. 3b, 4b: Moscati Antiquities and Heritage, Baghdad. Staatliche Museen, Berlin / Art Studies; fig. 2: © The Israel et al. 1970 Resource, NY; figs. 2 – 4, 6 – 9: Museum, Jerusalem/Israel Aruz, “Introduction”: figs. 1 – 7: © Trustees of the British Museum; Antiquities Authority; figs. 3 – 9: Hill: fig. 1: After Grimal 1981, pl. Images © The Metropolitan fig. 10: Knapp and van Dommelen © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem / V; fig. 2: The Art Archive at Art Museum of Art 2014, drawing: Alberto Cova Israel Antiquities Authority, Resource, NY, photo: Gianni Dagli photos: Vladimir Naikhin Orti: figs. 3a, 3b: reproduced by Aruz, “Bronze to Iron: Art in Gansell: fig. 1: © Trustees of the Permission of the Provost and Transition”: fig. 1: © British British Museum; fig. 2: Damerji Finkelstein: fig. 1: Langgut et al. Fellows of Eton College; fig. 4: School at Athens, courtesy Irene 1999, fig. 30; fig. 3: Damerji 1999, 2013; fig. 2: Yahalom-Mack © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem/ Lemos and Andres Reyes; figs. 2, 5: fig. 14; fig. 4: Damerji 1999, fig. 11; et al. forthcoming; fig. 3: Gilboa Israel Antiquities Authority, photo: Bruce M. White; figs. 3, 9a, 9b: fig. 5: Image © The Metropolitan and Namdar 2015, Courtesy Ayelet Elie Posner; fig. 5: © Musée du Images © The Metropolitan Museum of Art; fig. 6: Damerji Gilboa; fig. 4: Meiri et al. 2013 Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais / Museum of Art; fig. 4: Courtesy 1999, fig. 25; fig. 7: J. Curtis et al. Art Resource, NY, photo: Raphael National Museum, Aleppo; fig. 6: 2008, pl. 1b; fig. 8: Damerji 1999, Novák: figs. 1, 5, 10: © Mirko Chipault; fig. 6a: Flores 2004, Courtesy Archaeological Museum, fig. 43; fig. 9a: Damerji 1999, p. 55, Novák; fig. 2: bpk / pl. 23b, drawing: Diane Flores; Argostoli; fig. 7: © N. & D. top; fig. 9b: drawing: Lamia al- Vorderasiatisches Museum, fig. 6b: © Trustees of the British Goulandris Foundation—Museum Gailani Werr Staatliche Museen, Berlin, photo: Museum; figs. 7a, 7b, 8a – 8g: of Cycladic Art; figs. 8a, 10a: Olaf M. Teßmer; fig. 3: © Kunst- Images © The Metropolitan © British School at Athens, photos: Seymour: figs. 2, 3b – 9: und Ausstellungshalle der Museum of Art; figs. 9a, 9b: Bruce M. White; figs. 8b, 10b: © Trustees of the British Museum; Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Courtesy University of © British School at Athens, draw- fig. 3a: Image © The Metropolitan Vorderasiatisches Museum, Pennsylvania Museum of ings after Popham and Lemos Museum of Art Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Archaeology and Anthropology, 1996, pls. 134, 133; figs. 11a, 11b, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Philadelphia; fig. 10: Courtesy 12: © Trustees of the British Van De Mieroop: fig. 1: Fachgebiet Digitales Gestalten, in Cyprus Museum, Nicosia / Museum; fig. 13: © The Israel © Trustees of the British Museum; cooperation with Architectura Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, Museum, Jerusalem / Israel fig. 2: Image © The Metropolitan Virtualis GmbH; fig. 4: Based on a photo: Bruce M. White; figs. 11, Antiquities Authority; fig. 14: Museum of Art Wikimedia image; fig. 6: Cluzan 12: Images © The Metropolitan Courtesy Directorate General of 1993, no. 225a; fig. 7: Courtesy Museum of Art Antiquities, Beirut; figs. 16, 17: Tubb: fig. 1a: Baly and Hartmut Kühne; fig. 8: Marzahn Courtesy Nicholas Chr. Tushingham 1971, map XII; fig. 1b: and Salje 2003, p. 156; figs. 9a – d: Gubel: fig. 1: © Aleppo, National Stampolidis, photos: Bruce White Anandaroop Roy, after Tubb 2006, © Tell H. alaf Project, Berlin, pho- Museum; fig. 2: Museo (figs. 16a, 16b, 16d, 17) and Joan with modifications by Jonathan N. tos: Laura Simons, drawings: Arquelógico de Sevilla, photo: Aruz (figs. 16c, 16e, 16f ) Tubb; fig. 2: University of Gabriele Elsen-Novák Bruce M. White; fig. 3: Image Pennsylvania Museum of © The Metropolitan Museum of Killebrew: fig. 1: Steve F. E. Archaeology and Anthropology, Özyar: fig. 1: Map after Erhan Art; fig. 4: © Royal Museums of Cameron via Wikimedia Philadelphia; fig. 3: Courtesy Bıçakcım in Çambel and Özyar Art & History, Brussels; fig. 5: Commons; figs. 2, 3a, 3b: Ann E. Oriental Institute of the University 2003, pl. 2b; fig. 2: Plan by M. Cyprus Museum, Nicosia / Killebrew; fig. 4: © Museum of of Chicago; fig. 4: Erich Lessing / Sicker-Akman in Çambel and Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, Fine Arts, Boston; fig. 6: Courtesy Art Resource, NY: fig. 5: T. Özyar 2003, pl. 5; fig. 3: Plan and photo: Bruce M. White; fig. 6: Ann E. Killebrew; figs. 7, 8, 10, 11: Dothan and M. Dothan 1992, pl. 6; photos: Çambel and Özyar 2003; Crowfoot 1938, p. 15, fig. 2a; fig. 7: Ilan Sztulman, courtesy Tel figs. 6, 7: Jonathan N. Tubb; fig. 8: fig. 4: © Musée du Louvre, Dist. Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY; Miqne-Ekron Publication Project; drawing by Jonathan N. Tubb; RMN-Grand Palais / Art fig. 8: © Eric Gubel; fig. 9: Caubet fig. 9: Moshe Cohen, courtesy Ann fig. 9: Kenyon 1971; fig. 10: © The Resource, NY, photo: Raphael et al. 2002, drawing: C. Florimont; E. Killebrew; fig. 12: © The Israel Israel Museum, Jerusalem, photo: Chipault; fig. 5a: Çambel and fig. 10: Image © The Metropolitan Museum, Jerusalem, photo: Yoram Elie Posner; fig. 11: Courtesy Özyar 2003, pl. 61; fig. 5b: Çambel Museum of Art; fig. 11: Perrot & Lehmann; fig. 13: Image © The Oriental Institute of the University and Özyar 2003, pl. 59; fig. 6: Chipiez III, p. 97, fig. 36; figs. 12, Metropolitan Museum of Art; of Chicago; fig. 12: Anandaroop Çambel and Özyar 2003, pl. 97 13: drawings: Eric Gubel; fig. 14: Photograph and Illustration Credits 359  Courtesy Direction Générale des Art; fig. 7: Boardman 2002, Geske; fig. 3: © RMN-Grand Images Group / Art Resource, NY; Antiquités, Beirut fig. 118; fig. 8: Bruce M. White; Palais/Art Resource, NY, photo: fig. 21: Courtesy Nicholas Chr. fig. 9: Boardman 2002, fig. 126 Raphael Chipault; fig. 4: © Cyprus Stampolidis, with permission Winter: fig. 1: © RMN-Grand Museum, Nicosia / Department of granted by Department of Palais / Art Resource, NY; figs. 2, Gunter: fig. 1: © Trustees of the Antiquities, Cyprus; fig. 5: Antiquities, Cyprus 4: © Trustees of the British British Museum; fig. 2: Scala / © Musée du Louvre, dist. RMN- Museum; figs. 3, 5, 10: Images Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Grand Palais / Thierry Ollivier; Sannibale: fig. 1: Canina 1846, © The Metropolitan Museum of Culturali / Art Resource; fig. 3: figs. 6, 7: © RMN-Grand Palais / pl. LII; fig. 2: Grifi 1841; Art; fig. 6: Wikipedia “Baluster”; © Staatliche Antikensammlungen Art Resource, NY; fig. 8: Image figs. 3 – 12, 15, 16, 19: © Vatican fig. 7: © The Israel Museum, und Glyptothek München, photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Museums. All rights reserved; Jerusalem, photo: Elie Posner; Renate Kühling; fig. 4: Hopkinson Art; fig. 9: Courtesy Department of fig. 13: Herrmann 1986, no. 499; fig. 8: © Museum of Fine Arts, and Baker-Penoyre 1902, pl. V; Antiquities, Cyprus fig. 17: Pf älzner 2008; fig. 18: Boston; fig. 9: © Trustees of the figs. 5, 6: © RMN-Grand Palais/ © Trustees of the British Museum British Museum Art Resource, NY; fig. 7: Papalexandrou: figs. 1a, 1b: University of Pennsylvania Image © The Metropolitan López-Ruiz: fig. 1: © Trustees of Graff: fig. 1: Courtesy Jennie Choi Museum of Archaeology and Museum of Art; fig. 2: bpk, the British Museum; fig. 2: (top) and Veena Jayadeva (bottom); Anthropology, Philadelphia; Berlin / Antikensammlung, Courtesy Archaeological Museum, fig. 2: Anandaroop Roy, after figs. 8a, 8b: Rathje 2007, p. 107, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Pithekoussai, Ischia, Italy Becker 2005, fig. 5, with additional drawings: Margaret George Preussicher Kulturbesitz / Art sites added by Graff; fig. 3: Resource, NY; fig. 3: Walter 1959a, Bahrani: fig. 1: bpk, Berlin / Frankfort 1955, pl. 61, no. 642; Feldman: fig. 1: Marian H. pl. 114, top; fig. 4: Amy Vorderasiatisches Museum, fig. 4: Woolley and Mallowan 1976, Feldman; fig. 2: © Vatican Papalexandrou; fig. 5: DAI-Athens; Staatliche Museen, Berlin / Art p. 182, no. 250; fig. 5: Image © The Museums. All rights reserved; fig. 6: Montelius 1904, pl. 322, Resource, NY; fig. 2: J. Curtis et al. Metropolitan Museum of Art; fig. 3: Image © The Metropolitan no. 2; fig. 7: Rathje 1983, p. 13, 2008; figs. 3, 6: Bruce M. White; fig. 6: Luschan 1943, figs. 80 – 81, Museum of Art; fig. 4: Courtesy fig. 5; fig. 8: Nassos Papalexandrou figs. 4, 5, 8: © Trustees of the pls. 35a, 35b; fig. 7: University of Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis, photo: British Museum; fig. 7: Image © Pennsylvania Museum of Bruce M. White Matthäus: figs. 1, 2: drawings: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Archaeology and Anthropology, Hartmut Matthäus; fig. 2: Image Philadelphia, photo: Katherine Niemeier: figs. 1a, 1b, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9: © The Metropolitan Museum of Cover, p. 86: Images © The Blanchard; figs. 8, 9: © Trustees of Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier; fig. 2: Art; figs. 3, 4, 5: Courtesy Hartmut Metropolitan Museum of Art; the British Museum Kilian-Dirlmeier 1985, p. 233 Matthäus; fig. 6: Sakellarakis 1983, frontispiece, pp. 12, 40: © Trustees fig. 15; fig. 3: Kilian-Dirlmeier p. 440, fig. 1; figs. 7, 10, 11, 12: of the British Museum; p. 2: Boardman: fig. 1: After 1985, p. 239, fig. 20; figs. 7, 8: Bruce M. White; fig. 8: DAI- RMN-Grand Palais / Art Herrmann 1972, p. 82, fig. 49; Bruce M. White Athens; fig. 9: Image © The Resource, NY; pp. 204, 322: Bruce fig. 2: Anandaroop Roy, after Metropolitan Museum of Art M. White Boardman 1999, fig. 314B; fig. 3: Caubet: fig. 1: Courtesy Boardman 2002, fig. 22; fig. 4: Marguerite Yon; fig. 2: bpk, Stampolidis: figs. 1, 13a, 14, 17, © Trustees of the British Museum; Berlin / Museum für Vor- und 19: Bruce M. White; figs. 2, 3a, 3b, fig. 5: Boardman 2002, fig. 32; Frühgeschichte, Berlin / Art 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13b, 15, 16, fig. 6: © The Cleveland Museum of Resource, NY, photo: Ingrid 18, 20: Courtesy Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis; fig. 5: Universal 360 Assyria to Iberia