Gojoseon: Difference between revisions

Gojoseon
고조선 (古朝鮮)
Gojoseon 고조선 (古朝鮮)
2333 BC (?)–108 BC
	Gojoseon at its decline in 108 BC
Capital	Asadal , Wanggeom-seong
Common languages	Proto-Korean
Religion	Korean shamanism
Government	Monarchy
King
• 194 BC - ?	Wi Man
• ? - 108 BC	King Ugeo
Historical era	Ancient, legendary
• legendarily established	2333 BC (?)
• Gojoseon-Han War	109 BC
• Fall of Wanggeom-seong	108 BC
	Succeeded by
Buyeo kingdom
Samhan
Four Commanderies of Han
Today part of	North Korea; South Korea; China

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Gojoseon (Korean pronunciation: [kodʑosʰʌn]) was an ancient Korean kingdom. The addition of Go (고, 古), meaning "ancient", distinguishes it from one of the various names of Joseon.

During its early phase, the capital of Gojoseon was located in Liaoning; around 400 BC, and was moved to Pyongyang, while in the south of the peninsula, the Jin state arose by the 3rd century BC.^[1]^[2]

The territory of Gojoseon was invaded by the Han dynasty of China during the Gojoseon–Han War in 108 BC, which is said to have led to the collapse of the kingdom into many small states, until the Proto–Three Kingdoms emerged and marked their own period in Korean history.

Their language was probably a predecessor of the equally prehistoric Buyeo languages, and perhaps a form of Proto-Korean.^[3]

Founding legend

Dangun Myth

Heaven Lake of Baekdu Mountain, where Dangun's father is said to have descended from heaven

Dangun Wanggeom is the legendary founder of Korea. While there are variations among different texts and oral traditions, the most popular account is from the written record of the founding myth in Samguk Yusa, a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi. According to the legend, the Lord of Heaven, Hwanin (환인), had a son Hwanung (환웅) who descended to Mountain Taebaek and founded the city Sinsi. Hwanung later married a bear turned into a woman, Ungnyeo (웅녀), and Ungnyeo gave birth to Dangun.

While the Dangun story is considered to be a myth^[4], it is believed it is a mythical synthesis of a series of historical events relating to the founding of Gojoseon^[5]. There are various theories on the origin of this myth^[6]. Seo and Kang (2002) believe the Dangun myth is based on integration of two different tribes, an invasive sky-worshipping bronze age tribe and a native bear-worshipping neolithic tribe, that lead to the foundation of Gojoseon^[7]. Lee K. B. (1984) believes 'Dangun-wanggeom' was a title borne by successive leaders of Gojoseon^[8].

Dangun is said to have founded Gojoseon in 2333BC, based on the description of the Dongguk Tonggam (1485). The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BC? – 2256 BC?). Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yao's reign, Sejong Sillok says the first year, and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year.^[9]

Gija Myth and its controversy

Gija, who was a man from Shang China allegedly fled to the Korean peninsula in 1122 BC during the fall of the Shang to the Zhou dynasty and founded Gija Joseon.^[10] In South Korea, United Kingdom and the United States, most scholars believe Gija's relation to Gojoseon is a Chinese fabrication and Gija has nothing to do with Gojoseon.^[6] In the past, the earliest survived Korean record, Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms admitted Gija Joseon. The Korean historical record "Tongsa Kangmok" (東史綱目) in 1778 described Gija's activities and contributions in Gojoseon. The records of Gija refer to eight laws (Beomgeum Paljo, 범금팔조, 犯禁八條), that are recorded by Book of Han and evidence a hierarchical society and legal protection of private property.^[11]

In the pre-modern Korea, Gija represented the authenticating presence of Chinese civilization, and until the 12th century Koreans commonly believed that Danjun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Gija gave Korea its high culture—and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilization.^[12]

However, nationalist sentiment in the modern era has diminished Gija's place today to the point of near extinction.^[12] Many Korean scholars deny its existence for various reasons, mainly due to contradicting archaeological evidence.^[13] They also point to the Bamboo Annals and the Analects of Confucius, which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon.^[14] Some revisionist historians in Korea who believe in the existence of Gija Joseon divide Gojoseon into an eastern and western part. They argue that the western part includes areas around Hebei, Liaoning and southeast Inner Mongolia, and that it was there where Gija Joseon and Wiman Joseon were both established, while the eastern part remained under the control of Dangun's Joseon. ^{[citation needed]}

State formation

Gojoseon is first found in contemporaneous historical records of early 7th century BC, as located around Bohai Bay and trading with Qi (齊) of China.^[15] The Zhanguoce, Shanhaijing, and Shiji refers to Joseon as a region, until the text Shiji began referring it as a country from 195 BC onwards.^[10]

By the 4th century BC, other states with defined political structures developed in the areas of the earlier Bronze Age "walled-town states"; Gojoseon was the most advanced of them in the peninsular region.^[2] The city-state expanded by incorporating other neighboring city-states by alliance or military conquest. Thus, a vast confederation of political entities between the Taedong and Liao rivers was formed. As Gojoseon evolved, so did the title and function of the leader, who came to be designated as "king" (Han), in the tradition of the Zhou Dynasty, around the same time as the Yan (燕) leader.^[16] Records of that time mention the hostility between the feudal state in Northern China and the "confederated" kingdom of Gojoseon, and notably, a plan to attack the Yan beyond the Liao River frontier. The confrontation led to the decline and eventual downfall of Gojoseon, described in Yan records as "arrogant" and "cruel". But the ancient kingdom also appears as a prosperous Bronze Age civilization, with a complex social structure, including a class of horse-riding warriors who contributed to the development of Gojoseon, particularly the northern expansion^[17] into most of the Liaodong basin.

Around 300 BC, Gojoseon lost significant western territory after a war with the Yan state, but this indicates Gojoseon was already a large enough state that could wage war against Yan and survive the loss of 2000 li (800 kilometers) of territory.^[11] Gojoseon is thought to have relocated its capital to the Pyongyang region around this time.^[16]

Wiman Joseon and fall

In 195 BC, King Jun appointed a refugee from Yan, Wiman. Wiman later rebelled in 194 BC, and Jun fled to southern Korean Peninsula.

In 109 BC, Emperor Wu of Han invaded near the Liao River. A conflict would erupt in 109 BC, when Wiman's grandson King Ugeo (右渠, 우거) refused to permit Jin's ambassadors to reach China through his territories. When Emperor Wei sent an ambassador She He (涉何) to Wanggeom to negotiate right of passage with King Ugeo, King Ugeo refused and had a general escort She back to Han territory — but when they got close to Han borders, She assassinated the general and claimed to Emperor Wu that he had defeated Joseon in battle, and Emperor Wu, unaware of his deception, made him the military commander of the Commandery of Liaodong. King Ugeo, offended, made a raid on Liaodong and killed She He.

In response, Emperor Wu commissioned a two-pronged attack, one by land and one by sea, against Joseon. The two forces attacking Joseon were unable to coordinate well with each other and eventually suffered large losses. Eventually the commands were merged, and Wanggeom fell in 108 BC. Han took over the Joseon lands and established Four Commanderies of Han in the western part of former Gojoseon area.

The Gojoseon disintegrated by 1st century BC as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. As Gojoseon lost control of its confederacy, many successor states sprang from its former territory, such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye. Goguryeo and Baekje evolved from Buyeo.

Culture

Around 2000 BC, a new pottery culture of painted and chiseled design is found. These people practiced agriculture in a settled communal life, probably organized into familial clans. Rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. Bronze daggers and mirrors have been excavated, and there is archaeological evidence of small walled-town states in this period.^[17]^[18] Dolmens and bronze daggers found in the area are uniquely Korean and can't be found in China.

Mumun pottery

In the Mumun Pottery Period (1500–300 BC), plain coarse pottery replaced earlier comb-pattern wares, possibly as a result of the influence of new populations migrating to Korea from Manchuria and Siberia. This type of pottery typically has thicker walls and displays a wider variety of shapes, indicating improvements in kiln technology.^[2] This period is sometimes called the "Korean bronze age", but bronze artifacts are relatively rare and regionalized until the 7th century BC.

Rice cultivation

Sometime around 1200 to 900 BC, rice cultivation spread to Korea from China and Manchuria. The people also farmed native grains such as millet and barley, and domesticated livestock.^[19]

Bronze tools

The beginning of the Bronze Age on the peninsula is usually said to be 1000 BC, but estimates range from the 13th to 8th centuries BC.^[20] Although the Korean Bronze Age culture derives from the Liaoning and Manchuria, it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects.^{[citation needed]}

By the 7th century BC, a Bronze Age material culture, with influences from Manchuria, eastern Mongolia as well as Siberia and Scythian bronze styles, flourishes on the peninsula. Korean bronzes contain a higher percentage of zinc than those of the neighboring bronze cultures. Bronze artifacts, found most frequently in burial sites, consist mainly of swords, spears, daggers, small bells, and mirrors decorated with geometric patterns.^[2]^[21]

Gojoseon's development seems linked to the adoption of bronze technology. Its singularity finds its most notable expression in the idiosyncratic type of bronze swords, or "mandolin-shaped daggers" (비파형동검, 琵琶形銅劍). The mandolin-shape dagger is found in the regions of Liaoning, Hebei, and Manchuria down to the Korean peninsula. It suggest the existence of Gojoseon dominions, at least in the area shown on the map. Remarkably, the shape of the "mandolin" dagger of Gojoseon differs significantly from the sword artifacts found in China.

Dolmen tombs

Around 900 BC, burial practices become more elaborate, a reflection of increasing social stratification. Goindol, the Dolmen tombs in Korea and Manchuria, formed of upright stones supporting a horizontal slab, are more numerous in Korea than in other parts of East Asia. Other new forms of burial are stone cists (underground burial chambers lined with stone) and earthenware jar coffins. The bronze objects, pottery, and jade ornaments recovered from dolmens and stone cists indicate that such tombs were reserved for the elite class.^[2]^[22]

Around the 6th century BC, burnished red wares, made of a fine iron-rich clay and characterized by a smooth, lustrous surface, appear in dolmen tombs, as well as in domestic bowls and cups.^[2]

Iron culture

Around this time, Jin state occupied the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about this state, except it was the apparent predecessor to the Samhan confederacies.

Around 300 BC, iron technology was introduced into Korea from Yan state. Iron was produced locally in the southern part of the peninsula by the 2nd century BC. According to Chinese accounts, iron from the lower Nakdong River valley in the southeast, was valued throughout the peninsula and Japan.^[2]

Proto–Three Kingdoms

Numerous small states and confederations arose from the remnants of Gojoseon, including Goguryeo, Buyeo, JeonJoseon, Okjeo, and Dongye. Three of the Chinese commanderies fell to local resistance within a few decades, but the last, Nakrang, remained an important commercial and cultural outpost until it was destroyed by the expanding Goguryeo in 313.

King Jun of Gojoseon is said to have fled to the state of Jin in southern Korean peninsula. Jin developed into the Samhan confederacies, the beginnings of Baekje and Silla, continuing to absorb migration from the north. The Samhan confederacies were Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. King Jun ruled Mahan, which was eventually annexed by Baekje. Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla gradually grew into the Three Kingdoms of Korea that dominated the entire peninsula by around the 4th century.

Notes

^ Template:Ko icon 고조선(古朝鮮). Encylopaedia Britannica(Korean).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC – 1 AD". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
^ Jaehoon Lee (2004). "The Relatedness Between The Origin of Japanese and Korean Ethnicity" (PDF). The Florida State University. p. 31. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
^ Seth, Michael J. (2010) History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6717-7.
^ Template:Ko icon 고조선(古朝鮮). Encylopaedia Britannica(Korean).
^ ^a ^b Barnes 2001, pp. 9–14.
^ 서 2002.
^ Lee 1984.
^ Yoon, N.-H. (윤내현), The Location and Transfer of Go-Chosun's Capital (고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), 단군학연구, 7, 207–38 (2002)
^ ^a ^b Barnes 2001, pp. 9–10.
^ ^a ^b Template:Ko icon Daum 백과사전 : 고조선
^ ^a ^b Kyung Moon hwang, "A History of Korea, An Episodic Narrative", 2010, pp. 4
^ http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?pid=694&isid=30674&arid=657709&topMenu=&topMenu1=
^ 네이버 백과사전
^ 고조선 (in Korean). Naver/Doosan Encyclopedia.
^ ^a ^b Template:Ko icon http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
^ ^a ^b "Korea's Place in the Sun". The New York Times.
^ North Korea - The Origins Of The Korean Nation
^ "Timeline of Art and History". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
^ Template:Ko icon 청동기문화 靑銅器文化 (고고학사전, 2001.12, 국립문화재연구소)
^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Korea, Bronze Age Objects
^ Unesco.

Bibliography

Barnes, Gina Lee (2001). State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1323-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-61575-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
서, 의식; 강, 봉룡 (2002). 뿌리 깊은 한국사 샘이 깊은 이야기 1 : 고조선·삼국 (in Korean). 솔. ISBN 8981335362. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)

[1] Template:Ko icon 고조선(古朝鮮). Encylopaedia Britannica(Korean).

[Met-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC – 1 AD". Metropolitan Museum of Art.

[3] Jaehoon Lee (2004). "The Relatedness Between The Origin of Japanese and Korean Ethnicity" (PDF). The Florida State University. p. 31. Retrieved 2007-04-11.

[4] Seth, Michael J. (2010) History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6717-7.

[5] Template:Ko icon 고조선(古朝鮮). Encylopaedia Britannica(Korean).

[FOOTNOTEBarnes20019–14-6] Barnes 2001, pp. 9–14.

[FOOTNOTE서2002-7] 서 2002.

[FOOTNOTELee1984-8] Lee 1984.

[9] Yoon, N.-H. (윤내현), The Location and Transfer of Go-Chosun's Capital (고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), 단군학연구, 7, 207–38 (2002)

[FOOTNOTEBarnes20019–10-10] Barnes 2001, pp. 9–10.

[daum-11] Template:Ko icon Daum 백과사전 : 고조선

[Korea_2010,_pp._4-12] Kyung Moon hwang, "A History of Korea, An Episodic Narrative", 2010, pp. 4

[13] ttp://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?pid=694&isid=30674&arid=657709&topMenu=&topMenu1=

[14] 네이버 백과사전

[15] 고조선 (in Korean). Naver/Doosan Encyclopedia.

[naver-16] Template:Ko icon http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543

[NYT-17] "Korea's Place in the Sun". The New York Times.

[18] North Korea - The Origins Of The Korean Nation

[autogenerated1-19] "Timeline of Art and History". Metropolitan Museum of Art.

[20] Template:Ko icon 청동기문화 靑銅器文化 (고고학사전, 2001.12, 국립문화재연구소)

[21] The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Korea, Bronze Age Objects

[Unesco-22] Unesco.

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 |conventional_long_name = Gojoseon
 |common_name = Gojoseon
+|
 |continent = Asia
 |region = East Asia
 |country = [[Manchuria]], and northern parts of the [[Korean Peninsula]]
-|era = Ancient
+|era = Ancient, legendary
 |status =
 |status_text =
 |empire =
 |government_type = Monarchy
+|
-|year_start = Unknown
+|year_start = 2333 BC (?)
 |year_end = 108 BC
+|
-|event_start =
+|
-|date_start =
+|event_start = legendarily established
-|event_end =
+|date_start =
+|event_end = Fall of [[Wanggeom-seong]]
 |date_end =
+|
 |event1 = Gojoseon-Han War
-|date_event1 = 109-108 BC
+|date_event1 = 109 BC
 |event2 =
 |date_event2 =
@@ Line 26: / Line 31: @@
 |event4 =
 |date_event4 =
+|
 |event_post =
 |date_post =
+|
 |p1 =
 |s1 = Buyeo kingdom
@@ Line 33: / Line 40: @@
 |s3 = Four Commanderies of Han
 |flag_s2 =
+|
 |image_flag =
 |flag =
 |flag_type =
+|
 |image_coat =
 |symbol =
 |symbol_type =
+|
+|
 |image_map = History of Korea-108 BC.png
 |image_map_caption = Gojoseon at its decline in 108 BC
+|
-|capital = [[Asadal]], [[Wanggeom-seong]]
+|capital = [[Asadal]] , [[Wanggeom-seong]]
+|
 |common_languages = [[Proto-Korean]]
 |religion = [[Korean shamanism]]
 |currency =
+|
 |leader1 = [[Wiman of Gojoseon|Wi Man]]
 |leader2 = [[Ugeo of Gojoseon|King Ugeo]]
@@ Line 54: / Line 68: @@
 |today = {{flag|North Korea}}<br/>{{flag|South Korea}}<br/>{{flag|China}}
 |footnotes =
-}}
-{{Infobox Korean name
-|title='''Gojoseon'''
-|hangul=고조선
-|hanja=古朝鮮
-|rr=Gojoseon
-|mr=Kojosŏn
 }}
 {{History of Korea}}
@@ Line 67: / Line 74: @@
 '''Gojoseon''' ({{IPA-ko|kodʑosʰʌn}}) was an ancient [[Korea]]n kingdom. The addition of ''Go'' ({{lang|ko|고}}, {{linktext|古}}), meaning "ancient", distinguishes it from one of the various [[Names of Korea#Joseon|names of Joseon]].
-During its early phase, the capital of Gojoseon was located in [[Liaoning]]; around 400 BC, and was moved to [[Pyongyang]], while in the south of the peninsula, the [[Jin (Korean state)|Jin state]] arose by the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b |script-title=ko:고조선(古朝鮮)|language=ko}}</ref><ref name = "Met">{{cite web |url = http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm | publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art | title = Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC – 1 AD}}</ref>
+During its early phase, the capital of Gojoseon was located in [[Liaoning]]; around 400 BC, and was moved to [[Pyongyang]], while in the south of the peninsula, the [[Jin (Korean state)|Jin state]] arose by the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{ko icon}} {{cite web |url = http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b |script-title=ko:고조선(古朝鮮) |work = Encylopaedia Britannica(Korean)}}</ref><ref name = "Met">{{cite web |url = http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm | publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art | title = Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC – 1 AD}}</ref>
 The territory of Gojoseon was invaded by the [[Han dynasty]] of [[China]] during the [[Gojoseon–Han War]] in 108 BC, which is said to have led to the collapse of the kingdom into many small states, until the [[Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea|Proto–Three Kingdoms]] emerged and marked their own period in Korean history.
@@ Line 74: / Line 81: @@
 ==Founding legend==
+{{main|Korean founding myth}}
-{{NPOV|date=December 2014}}
+===Dangun Myth===
+{{Main|Dangun Joseon}}
 [[File:Baitou Mountain Tianchi.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Heaven Lake]] of [[Baekdu Mountain]], where Dangun's father is said to have descended from heaven]]
-The ''[[Zhanguoce]]'', ''[[Shanhaijing]]'', and ''[[Shiji]]''—containing some of the earliest records—refers to Chaoxian (Joseon) as a region, until the text ''Shiji'' began referring it as a country from 195 BC onwards.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–10}} There are three different founding myths concerning Gojoseon.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=10}}
+[[Dangun|Dangun Wanggeom]] is the legendary founder of [[Korea]]. While there are variations among different texts and oral traditions, the most popular account is from the written record of the [[founding myth]] in ''[[Samguk Yusa]],'' a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in ''[[Jewang Ungi]]''. According to the legend, the Lord of Heaven, [[Hwanin]] (환인), had a son [[Hwanung]] (환웅) who descended to [[Baekdusan|Mountain Taebaek]] and founded the city [[Sinsi]]. Hwanung later married a bear turned into a woman, [[Ungnyeo]] (웅녀), and Ungnyeo gave birth to [[Dangun]].
-The first story involves [[Jizi]] (Gija/Kija), who was a man from [[Shang dynasty|Shang China]] that had fled to the Korean peninsula in 1122 BC during the fall of the Shang to the [[Zhou dynasty]].{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–10}} The ''Shiji'' recorded Jizi's flight, but it did not associate him with Gojoseon.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–10}}
+While the Dangun story is considered to be a myth<ref>Seth, Michael J. (2010) History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6717-7.</ref>, it is believed it is a mythical synthesis of a series of historical events relating to the founding of Gojoseon<ref>{{ko icon}} {{cite web |url = http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b |script-title=ko:고조선(古朝鮮) |work = Encylopaedia Britannica(Korean)}}</ref>. There are various theories on the origin of this myth{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–14}}. Seo and Kang (2002) believe the Dangun myth is based on integration of two different tribes, an invasive sky-worshipping bronze age tribe and a native bear-worshipping neolithic tribe, that lead to the foundation of Gojoseon{{sfn|서|2002}}. Lee K. B. (1984) believes 'Dangun-wanggeom' was a title borne by successive leaders of Gojoseon{{sfn|Lee|1984}}.
-The second story involves [[Dangun]] which was recorded in the much-later Korean work ''[[Samguk Yusa]]'' of the 13th century.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=11}} This work states that Dangun—the offspring of a heavenly prince and a bear-woman—founded Gojoseon in 2333 BC, only to be succeeded by Jizi after [[King Wu of Zhou]] had placed him onto the throne in 1122 BC.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=11}} The origin of this myth is unknown.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=11}}
+Dangun is said to have founded Gojoseon in 2333BC, based on the description of the ''[[Dongguk Tonggam]]'' (1485). The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical [[Yao (ruler)|Yao]]'s reign (traditional dates: 2357 BC? – 2256 BC?). ''[[Samguk Yusa]]'' says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yao's reign, ''Sejong Sillok'' says the first year, and ''Dongguk Tonggam'' says the 25th year.<ref>Yoon, N.-H. (윤내현), The Location and Transfer of Go-Chosun's Capital (고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), ''단군학연구'', '''7''', 207–38 (2002)</ref>
-The third story involves [[Wiman]] (Wei Man), who was a military officer of the Yan kingdom of the [[Han dynasty]] that had fled to the Korean peninsula in 195 BC.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=11}} He founded the principality of Wangxian, which is thought to be on the region of present-day Pyongyang.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=11}} The 3rd-century text ''[[Weilüe]]'' of the ''[[Sanguozhi]]'' recorded that Wiman had usurped the rulership from [[Jun of Gojoseon|King Jun]] (Zhun) of the Qi [Jizi] dynasty, thus taking the kingship over Gojoseon.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=11}}
+===Gija Myth and its controversy===
-Hatada (1969), following the Jizi story, suggested that Gojoseon had its origin during the 3rd century BC (rather than 1122 BC) to account for its emergence in that period.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|p=12}} Henderson (1959) and McCune (1962) concluded that the Jizi story must have been conflated and respectively relate it to the increasing influence of the [[Yan (state)|Yan state]] (of the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou China]]) or the conquest by the [[Han dynasty]].{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=10–11}} Han W.K. (1970), ascribing the Dangun myth as legend and accepting the Wiman story, placed the emergence of Gojoseon in the 4th century BC.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=10–11}} Choi M.L. (1983, 1984, 1985, 1992), following the Wiman story, suggested that the military force and trade was cause of the establishment of Gojoseon, placing it in 194 BC.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=10–11}} Sohn et al. (1970) suggested that Gojoseon was rather a tribal group with rulers as early as 10th to 7th century BC, who fought with other tribes before coming in conflict with the Yan state of [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou China]].{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=10–11}} They rejected the Dangun myth as legend, the Jizi story as a fabrication, and accepted the Weiman story while noting that this gave Gojoseon the ability to unite the tribes into one state.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=12–13}}
+{{Main|Gija Joseon}}
+Gija, who was a man from [[Shang dynasty|Shang China]] allegedly fled to the Korean peninsula in 1122 BC during the fall of the Shang to the [[Zhou dynasty]] and founded [[Gija Joseon]].{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–10}} In South Korea, United Kingdom and the United States, most scholars believe Gija's relation to Gojoseon is a Chinese fabrication and Gija has nothing to do with Gojoseon.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–14}} In the past, the earliest survived Korean record, ''[[Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms]]'' admitted Gija Joseon. The Korean historical record "Tongsa Kangmok" (東史綱目) in 1778 described Gija's activities and contributions in Gojoseon. The records of Gija refer to eight laws (Beomgeum Paljo, 범금팔조, 犯禁八條), that are recorded by [[Book of Han]] and evidence a hierarchical society and legal protection of private property.<ref name = "daum" />
+In the pre-modern Korea, Gija represented the authenticating presence of Chinese civilization, and until the 12th century Koreans commonly believed that Danjun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Gija gave Korea its high culture—and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilization.<ref name="Korea 2010, pp. 4">Kyung Moon hwang, "A History of Korea, An Episodic Narrative", 2010, pp. 4</ref>
+However, nationalist sentiment in the modern era has diminished Gija's place today to the point of near extinction.<ref name="Korea 2010, pp. 4"/> Many Korean scholars deny its existence for various reasons, mainly due to contradicting archaeological evidence.<ref>http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?pid=694&isid=30674&arid=657709&topMenu=&topMenu1=</ref> They also point to the ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' and the ''[[Analects]]'' of Confucius, which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon.<ref>[http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=29466 네이버 백과사전<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Some revisionist historians in Korea who believe in the existence of Gija Joseon divide Gojoseon into an eastern and western part. They argue that the western part includes areas around [[Hebei]], [[Liaoning]] and southeast [[Inner Mongolia]], and that it was there where Gija Joseon and [[Wiman Joseon]] were both established, while the eastern part remained under the control of Dangun's Joseon. {{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
-''[[Samguk Yusa]]'' says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of [[Emperor Yao]]'s reign, ''Sejong Sillok'' says the first year, and ''Dongguk Tonggam'' says the 25th year.<ref>Yoon, N.-H. (윤내현), The Location and Transfer of Go-Chosun's Capital (고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), ''단군학연구'', '''7''', 207–38 (2002)</ref>
 ==State formation==
 {{See also|Gojoseon–Yan War}}
-Gojoseon is first found in contemporaneous historical records of early 7th century BC, as located around [[Bohai Bay]] and trading with [[Qi (state)|Qi]] (齊) of China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=14543 |script-title=ko:고조선 |publisher= Naver/Doosan Encyclopedia |language=Korean |accessdate= }}</ref>
+Gojoseon is first found in contemporaneous historical records of early 7th century BC, as located around [[Bohai Bay]] and trading with [[Qi (state)|Qi]] (齊) of China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=14543 |script-title=ko:고조선 |publisher= Naver/Doosan Encyclopedia |language=Korean |accessdate= }}</ref> The ''[[Zhanguoce]]'', ''[[Shanhaijing]]'', and ''[[Shiji]]'' refers to Joseon as a region, until the text ''Shiji'' began referring it as a country from 195 BC onwards.{{sfn|Barnes|2001|pp=9–10}}
 By the 4th century BC, other states with defined political structures developed in the areas of the earlier Bronze Age "walled-town states"; Gojoseon was the most advanced of them in the peninsular region.<ref name = "Met" /> The city-state expanded by incorporating other neighboring city-states by alliance or military conquest. Thus, a vast confederation of political entities between the Taedong and Liao rivers was formed. As Gojoseon evolved, so did the title and function of the leader, who came to be designated as "king" ([[Khan (title)|Han]]), in the tradition of the [[Zhou Dynasty]], around the same time as the [[Yan (state)|Yan]] (燕) leader.<ref name = "naver">{{ko icon}} http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543</ref> Records of that time mention the hostility between the feudal state in Northern China and the "confederated" kingdom of Gojoseon, and notably, a plan to attack the Yan beyond the Liao River frontier. The confrontation led to the decline and eventual downfall of Gojoseon, described in Yan records as "arrogant" and "cruel". But the ancient kingdom also appears as a prosperous Bronze Age civilization, with a complex social structure, including a class of horse-riding warriors who contributed to the development of Gojoseon, particularly the northern expansion<ref name = "NYT">{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/c/cumings-korea.html?_r=1&oref=slogin | work=The New York Times | title=Korea's Place in the Sun}}</ref> into most of the Liaodong basin.
 Around 300 BC, Gojoseon lost significant western territory after a war with the Yan state, but this indicates Gojoseon was already a large enough state that could wage war against Yan and survive the loss of 2000 [[li (unit)|li]] (800 kilometers) of territory.<ref name = "daum">{{ko icon}} [http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b Daum 백과사전 : 고조선<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Gojoseon is thought to have relocated its capital to the [[Pyongyang]] region around this time.<ref name = "naver" />
-===Gija Joseon and its controversy===
-{{Main|Gija Joseon}}
-According to Chinese records, [[Gija Joseon]] is the kingdom founded by [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] descendants led by Gija in the 12th century BC. The earliest survived Korean record, ''[[Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms]]'' admitted Gija Joseon. The Korean historical record "Tongsa Kangmok" (東史綱目) in 1778 described Gija's activities and contributions in Gojoseon. The records of Gija refer to eight laws (Beomgeum Paljo, 범금팔조, 犯禁八條), that are recorded by [[Book of Han]] and evidence a hierarchical society and legal protection of private property.<ref name = "daum" />
-In the pre-modern Korea, Gija represented the authenticating presence of Chinese civilization, and until the 12th century Koreans commonly believed that Danjun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Gija gave Korea its high culture—and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilization.<ref name="Korea 2010, pp. 4">Kyung Moon hwang, "A History of Korea, An Episodic Narrative", 2010, pp. 4</ref>
-However, Nationalist sentiment in the modern era has diminished Gija's place today to the point of near extinction.<ref name="Korea 2010, pp. 4"/> Many Korean scholars deny its existence for various reasons.<ref>http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?pid=694&isid=30674&arid=657709&topMenu=&topMenu1=</ref> They point to the ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' and the ''[[Analects]]'' of Confucius, which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon.<ref>[http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=29466 네이버 백과사전<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Some revisionist historians in Korea who believe in the existence of Gija Joseon divide Gojoseon into an eastern and western part. They argue that the western part includes areas around [[Hebei]], [[Liaoning]] and southeast [[Inner Mongolia]], and that it was there where Gija Joseon and [[Wiman Joseon]] were both established, while the eastern part remained under the control of Dangun's Joseon. {{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
 ===Wiman Joseon and fall===
@@ Line 131: / Line 135: @@
 The beginning of the [[Bronze Age]] on the peninsula is usually said to be 1000 BC, but estimates range from the 13th to 8th centuries BC.<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?cid=4644&docId=1639855&mobile&categoryId=4644 청동기문화 靑銅器文化 (고고학사전, 2001.12, 국립문화재연구소)]</ref> Although the Korean Bronze Age culture derives from the [[Liaoning bronze dagger culture|Liaoning]] and Manchuria, it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}
-By the 7th century BC, a Bronze Age material culture, with influences from northeastern China as well as Siberia and Scythian bronze styles, flourishes on the peninsula. Korean bronzes contain a higher percentage of zinc than those of the neighboring bronze cultures. Bronze artifacts, found most frequently in burial sites, consist mainly of swords, spears, daggers, small bells, and mirrors decorated with geometric patterns.<ref name = "Met" /><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/korea/koreaonline/text42.html The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Korea, Bronze Age Objects]</ref>
+By the 7th century BC, a Bronze Age material culture, with influences from Manchuria, eastern Mongolia as well as Siberia and Scythian bronze styles, flourishes on the peninsula. Korean bronzes contain a higher percentage of zinc than those of the neighboring bronze cultures. Bronze artifacts, found most frequently in burial sites, consist mainly of swords, spears, daggers, small bells, and mirrors decorated with geometric patterns.<ref name = "Met" /><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/korea/koreaonline/text42.html The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Korea, Bronze Age Objects]</ref>
 Gojoseon's development seems linked to the adoption of bronze technology. Its singularity finds its most notable expression in the idiosyncratic type of bronze swords, or "mandolin-shaped daggers" (비파형동검, 琵琶形銅劍). The mandolin-shape dagger is found in the regions of [[Liaoning]], [[Hebei]], and [[Manchuria]] down to the [[Korean peninsula]]. It suggest the existence of Gojoseon dominions, at least in the area shown on the map. Remarkably, the shape of the "mandolin" dagger of Gojoseon differs significantly from the sword artifacts found in China.
@@ Line 173: / Line 177: @@
 |isbn=978-0-7007-1323-3
 }}
+*{{cite book
+|ref=harv
+|last=Lee
+|first=Ki-Baik
+|title=A New History of Korea
+|year=1984
+|publisher=Harvard University Press
+|isbn=0-674-61575-1
+}}
+*{{cite book
+|ref=harv
+|last1=서
+|first1=의식
+|last2=강
+|first2=봉룡
+|title=뿌리 깊은 한국사 샘이 깊은 이야기 1 : 고조선·삼국
+|trans_title=Deep-rooted Korean History 1 : Gojoseon·Three Kingdoms
+|language= Korean
+|year=2002
+|publisher=솔
+|isbn=8981335362
+}}
 {{coord missing}}