Cebu (historical polity): Difference between revisions
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The '''Rajahnate of Cebu''' or '''Cebu''' also called as '''Sugbu''', was an [[Indianized kingdom|Indianized]] [[Raja]] monarchy [[Mandala (political model)|Mandala]] (polity) on the island of [[Cebu]]<ref name="Santarita" /> in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s. It is known in ancient Chinese records as the nation of Sokbu (束務).<ref>[https://www.pacs.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/03-Carmelea-final.pdf SONG, MING, AND OTHER CHINESE SOURCES ON PHILIPPINES-CHINA RELATIONS] By Carmelea Ang See. Page 74.</ref> According to Visayan oral legend, it was founded by [[Sri Lumay]]<ref name="Santarita">Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.</ref> or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Tamil [[Chola dynasty]].<ref name="Santarita" /> He was sent by the [[Chola Empire|Chola emperor]] from southern India to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent polity.<ref name="Abellana 1952">{{Cite book |last=Abellana |first=Jovito |title=Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik |date=1952}}</ref> The capital of the nation was [[Singhapala]]<ref name="Astrid" /> which is Tamil-Sanskrit<ref>[https://mothership.sg/2016/12/5-other-places-in-asia-which-are-also-called-singapura/ 5 other places in Asia which are also called Singapura By Joshua Lee]</ref> for "Lion City", the same root words with the modern city-state of [[Singapore]]. |
The '''Rajahnate of Cebu''' or '''Cebu''' also called as '''Sugbu''', was an [[Indianized kingdom|Indianized]] [[Raja]] monarchy [[Mandala (political model)|Mandala]] (polity) on the island of [[Cebu]]<ref name="Santarita" /> in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s. It is known in ancient Chinese records especially in the Zhufan Zhi 諸蕃志, published at year 1225,<ref name="prehispaniccebu">[https://prehispaniccebu.wordpress.com/2024/07/31/suwu-or-sokbu-in-the-chinese-trade/ Prehispanic Cebu]</ref> as the nation of Sokbu (束務)(In [[Hokkien]]) or pronounced as Suwu (In Mandarin).<ref>[https://www.pacs.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/03-Carmelea-final.pdf SONG, MING, AND OTHER CHINESE SOURCES ON PHILIPPINES-CHINA RELATIONS] By Carmelea Ang See. Page 74.</ref> According to Visayan oral legend, it was founded by [[Sri Lumay]]<ref name="Santarita">Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.</ref> or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Tamil [[Chola dynasty]].<ref name="Santarita" /> He was sent by the [[Chola Empire|Chola emperor]] from southern India to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent polity.<ref name="Abellana 1952">{{Cite book |last=Abellana |first=Jovito |title=Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik |date=1952}}</ref> The capital of the nation was [[Singhapala]]<ref name="Astrid" /> which is Tamil-Sanskrit<ref>[https://mothership.sg/2016/12/5-other-places-in-asia-which-are-also-called-singapura/ 5 other places in Asia which are also called Singapura By Joshua Lee]</ref> for "Lion City", the same root words with the modern city-state of [[Singapore]]. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===Foundation of the rajahnate === |
===Foundation of the rajahnate === |
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[[File:Shiva_Bronze_Image_Mactan.png|thumb|A picture of a Bronze Image of the Hindu God [[Shiva]] (lost during World War 2), found at Mactan-Cebu. It shows how the culture of the area was Hindu and [[Greater India|Indianized]].]]According to Visayan folklore, [[Sri]] Lumay was a half-[[Tamil people|Tamil]]<ref name="Santarita" /> and half-[[Malay people|Malay]]<ref name="bulwagan">{{Cite web |last=Quirino |first=Karl |date=2010-09-01 |title=The Rajahnate of Cebu |url=https://thebulwaganfoundation.wordpress.com/2010/09/01/the-rajahnate-of-cebu/ |website=The Bulwagan Foundation Trust |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Santarita" /> [[Chola dynasty|Chola king]]<ref>{{Citation|title=Singhapala|date=2021-03-23|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singhapala&oldid=1013756018|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref><ref name="Santarita" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Marr|first=J.|title=Chola|date=2003|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t017371|work=Oxford Art Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t017371|access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2021}}, who settled in the [[Visayas]], and had several sons. One of his sons was Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as ''Sialo'' which included the present-day towns of [[Carcar]] and [[Santander, Cebu|Santander]] in the southern region of Cebu. Sri Ukob ruled a polity known as ''Nahalin'' in the north, which included the present-day towns of [[Consolacion]], [[Liloan, Cebu|Liloan]], [[Compostela, Cebu|Compostela]], [[Danao, Cebu|Danao]], [[Carmen, Cebu|Carmen]] and [[Bantayan, Cebu|Bantayan]]. He died in battle, fighting with the Muslim [[Moro pirates]] known as ''magalos'' (literally "destroyers of peace") from [[Mindanao]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montebon |first=Marivir R. |title=Retracing Our Roots: A Journey Into Cebu's Precolonial and Colonial Past |date=2000 |publisher=ES Villaver Pub. |isbn=971-92309-0-8 |location=Minglanilla, Cebu |page=15 |language=en}}</ref> The islands they were in were collectively known as ''Pulua Kang Dayang'' or ''Kangdaya'' (literally "[the islands] which belong to Daya").<ref name="Macachor 2011" /> |
[[File:Shiva_Bronze_Image_Mactan.png|thumb|A picture of a Bronze Image of the Hindu God [[Shiva]] (lost during World War 2), found at Mactan-Cebu. It shows how the culture of the area was Hindu and [[Greater India|Indianized]].]]According to Visayan folklore, [[Sri]] Lumay was a half-[[Tamil people|Tamil]]<ref name="Santarita" /> and half-[[Malay people|Malay]]<ref name="bulwagan">{{Cite web |last=Quirino |first=Karl |date=2010-09-01 |title=The Rajahnate of Cebu |url=https://thebulwaganfoundation.wordpress.com/2010/09/01/the-rajahnate-of-cebu/ |website=The Bulwagan Foundation Trust |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Santarita" /> [[Chola dynasty|Chola king]]<ref>{{Citation|title=Singhapala|date=2021-03-23|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singhapala&oldid=1013756018|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref><ref name="Santarita" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Marr|first=J.|title=Chola|date=2003|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t017371|work=Oxford Art Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t017371|access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2021}}, who settled in the [[Visayas]], and had several sons. One of his sons was Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as ''Sialo'' which included the present-day towns of [[Carcar]] and [[Santander, Cebu|Santander]] in the southern region of Cebu. Sri Ukob ruled a polity known as ''Nahalin'' in the north, which included the present-day towns of [[Consolacion]], [[Liloan, Cebu|Liloan]], [[Compostela, Cebu|Compostela]], [[Danao, Cebu|Danao]], [[Carmen, Cebu|Carmen]] and [[Bantayan, Cebu|Bantayan]]. He died in battle, fighting with the Muslim [[Moro pirates]] known as ''magalos'' (literally "destroyers of peace") from [[Mindanao]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montebon |first=Marivir R. |title=Retracing Our Roots: A Journey Into Cebu's Precolonial and Colonial Past |date=2000 |publisher=ES Villaver Pub. |isbn=971-92309-0-8 |location=Minglanilla, Cebu |page=15 |language=en}}</ref> The islands they were in were collectively known as ''Pulua Kang Dayang'' or ''Kangdaya'' (literally "[the islands] which belong to Daya").<ref name="Macachor 2011" /> |
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{{anchor|Chola kings}} |
{{anchor|Chola kings}} |
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{{Chola history}}Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of [[scorched earth]] tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name ''Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu'' (literally "that of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu ("scorched earth").<ref name="Macachor 2011">{{Cite journal |last=Macachor |first=Celestino C. |date=2011 |title=Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana |url=http://cebueskrima.s5.com/custom3.html |url-status=dead |journal=Rapid Journal |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703210211/http://cebueskrima.s5.com/custom3.html |archive-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> |
{{Chola history}}Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of [[scorched earth]] tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name ''Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu'' (literally "that of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu ("scorched earth").<ref name="Macachor 2011">{{Cite journal |last=Macachor |first=Celestino C. |date=2011 |title=Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana |url=http://cebueskrima.s5.com/custom3.html |url-status=dead |journal=Rapid Journal |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703210211/http://cebueskrima.s5.com/custom3.html |archive-date=2012-07-03}}</ref> |
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According to the Chinese History Record, Zhufan Zhi 諸蕃志 1225, Cebu already existed as a nation which was similar to Pon-i ([[Brunei]]).<ref name="prehispaniccebu" /> |
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When discussing Boni (Borneo), a passage follows:<ref name="prehispaniccebu" /> |
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{{Blockquote |
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|text=“The countries of Xilonggong/Sailengkeng (possibly Selingaan Island), Shimiao/Simbio, Rili/Jitleh (possibly Jelai), Hulumantou/Holobantau, '''Suwu/Sobut''' (This is '''Cebu'''), Lima/Libeh, Danyu/Tamu, and Manuo/Belok are located on islands in the sea. Their people travel to and fro in small boats, and their clothing and diet are the same as those of Boni. They produce sheng agarwood, lakawood, beeswax, and tortoiseshell. Merchants can trade for these with white porcelain ware, wine, rice, coarse salt, white spun silk, and trade-quality gold.”<ref name="prehispaniccebu" /> |
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|author=Zhao Rugua |
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}} |
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===Reign of Sri Bantug === |
===Reign of Sri Bantug === |
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Revision as of 05:45, 11 October 2024
 | This article or section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as it uses Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya, Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik, and History of Panay from the first inhabitants and the Bornean immigrants from which the Bisayans are descended to the Arrival of the Spaniards as sources—the two former have been proven hoaxes, and the History of Panay is considered as a mere legend, as well as Macachor and Montebon's works, which greatly source from the former three. (November 2021) |
Rajahnate of Cebu Sugbu | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c.1400–1565 | |||||||||
 Map of the Rajanate of Cebu in 1521, with Sugbu under Rajah Humabon colored as dark blue, and its subordinate barangays as lighter blue. Mactan under Si Lapulapu is colored yellow green. | |||||||||
| Capital | Singhapala[1] (Modern Mabolo district in Cebu City) | ||||||||
| Common languages | Old Cebuano, Old Malay, Middle Tamil | ||||||||
| Religion | Syncretic form of Hinduism, Buddhism and Animism (see also Polytheism) Roman Catholicism (since 1521) | ||||||||
| Rajah | |||||||||
• 1521 | Rajah Humabon | ||||||||
• 1521–1565[2] | Rajah Tupas (last) | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | c.1400 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 4 June 1565 | ||||||||
| Currency | Barter | ||||||||
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| Today part of | Philippines | ||||||||
| History of the Philippines |
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The Rajahnate of Cebu or Cebu also called as Sugbu, was an Indianized Raja monarchy Mandala (polity) on the island of Cebu[3] in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. It is known in ancient Chinese records especially in the Zhufan Zhi 諸蕃志, published at year 1225,[4] as the nation of Sokbu (束務)(In Hokkien) or pronounced as Suwu (In Mandarin).[5] According to Visayan oral legend, it was founded by Sri Lumay[3] or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Tamil Chola dynasty.[3] He was sent by the Chola emperor from southern India to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent polity.[6] The capital of the nation was Singhapala[7] which is Tamil-Sanskrit[8] for "Lion City", the same root words with the modern city-state of Singapore.
History
Foundation of the rajahnate
According to Visayan folklore, Sri Lumay was a half-Tamil[3] and half-Malay[9][3] Chola king[10][3][11][failed verification], who settled in the Visayas, and had several sons. One of his sons was Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as Sialo which included the present-day towns of Carcar and Santander in the southern region of Cebu. Sri Ukob ruled a polity known as Nahalin in the north, which included the present-day towns of Consolacion, Liloan, Compostela, Danao, Carmen and Bantayan. He died in battle, fighting with the Muslim Moro pirates known as magalos (literally "destroyers of peace") from Mindanao.[12] The islands they were in were collectively known as Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya (literally "[the islands] which belong to Daya").[13]
| Chola kings and emperors |
|---|
| Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848 CE) |
| Related |
Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu (literally "that of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu ("scorched earth").[13]
According to the Chinese History Record, Zhufan Zhi 諸蕃志 1225, Cebu already existed as a nation which was similar to Pon-i (Brunei).[4]
When discussing Boni (Borneo), a passage follows:[4]
“The countries of Xilonggong/Sailengkeng (possibly Selingaan Island), Shimiao/Simbio, Rili/Jitleh (possibly Jelai), Hulumantou/Holobantau, Suwu/Sobut (This is Cebu), Lima/Libeh, Danyu/Tamu, and Manuo/Belok are located on islands in the sea. Their people travel to and fro in small boats, and their clothing and diet are the same as those of Boni. They produce sheng agarwood, lakawood, beeswax, and tortoiseshell. Merchants can trade for these with white porcelain ware, wine, rice, coarse salt, white spun silk, and trade-quality gold.”[4]
— Zhao Rugua
Reign of Sri Bantug
Sri Lumay was succeeded by the youngest of his sons, Sri Bantug, who ruled from a region known as Singhapala, which is now Mabolo of Cebu City. He died of disease. Sri Bantug had a brother called Sri Parang who was originally slated to succeed Sri Bantug. But he was a cripple and could not govern his polity because of his infirmity. Parang handed his throne to Sri Bantug's son and his nephew, Sri Humabon (also spelled Sri Hamabar), who became the rajah of Cebu in his stead.
Reign of Rajah Humabon
During Rajah Humabon's reign, the region had since become an important trading center where agricultural products were bartered. From Japan, perfume and glass utensils were usually traded for native goods. Ivory products, leather, precious and semi-precious stones and śarkarā (sugar) mostly came from India and Burma traders.[9] The harbors of Sugbu (the modern-day Parián district of Cebu) became known colloquially as sinibuayang hingpit ("the place for trading"), shortened to sibu or sibo ("to trade"), from which the modern Castilian name "Cebú" originates. It was also during Humabon's reign that Lapulapu arrived from Borneo, and was granted by Humabon the region of Mandawili (now Mandaue), including the island known as Opong or Opon (later known as Mactan). First contact with the Spanish also occurred during Humabon's reign, resulting in the death of Ferdinand Magellan.[13]
The phrase Kota Raya Kita[14] was documented by historian Antonio Pigafetta, to be a warning in the Old Malay language, from a merchant to the rajah and was cited to have meant:
"Have good care, O king, what you do, for these men are those who have conquered Calicut, Malacca, and all India the Greater. If you give them good reception and treat them well, it will be well for you, but if you treat them ill, so much the worse it will be for you, as they have done at Calicut and at Malacca."[15]
In reality, this phrase is that of Kota Raya kita, an indigenous Malay phrase of merchants under the authority of Rajah Humabon, with a meaning in English of: "our capital city": Kota (fortress), Raya (great, hence Kotaraya (capital city)), kita (we).
Diplomacy with other Southeast Asian Kingdoms
The Rajahnate of Cebu had diplomatic recognition among the other kingdoms of Southeast Asia. When Ferdinand Magellan's expedition landed on the port-kingdom of Cebu; the expedition scribe noted that not long before, an embassy carried by a ship from Siam (Thailand) arrived at the Cebu Rajahnate and paid tribute to Rajah Humabon.[16][17]
Dependencies of Cebu
Antonio Pigafetta, the expedition scribe, enumerated the towns and dependencies the Rajahnate of Cebu had.[18]
“In this island of Zubu there are dogs and cats, and other animals, whose flesh is eaten; there is also rice, millet, panicum, and maize; there are also figs, oranges, lemons, sugar-canes, cocos, gourds, ginger, honey, and other such things; they also make palm-wine of many qualities. Gold is abundant. The island is large, and has a good port with two entrances: one to the west, and the other to the east-north-east. It is in ten degrees north latitude and 154 east longitude from the line of demarcation.”
“In this island there are several towns, each of which has its principal men or chiefs. Here are the names of the towns and their chiefs:—
Cingapola: its chiefs are Cilaton, Ciguibucan, Cimaninga, Cimaticat, Cicanbul.
Mandani: its chief is Aponoaan.
Lalan: its chief is Teten.
Lalutan: its chief is Japau.
Lubucin: its chief is Cilumai.
— Antonio Pigafetta
It is notable how the Spanish mispronounced the Tamil "Singhapala" (சிங்கப்பூர்) as "Cingapola".
Battle of Mactan
The Battle of Mactan was fought on 27 April 1521 between forces of Rajah Humabon which included the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan hired by Spanish empire and Lapulapu, it ended with the death of Ferdinand Magellan.
Reign of Rajah Tupas and the subsuming by the Spanish
Sri Parang, the limp, also had a young son, Sri Tupas, also known as Rajah Tupas who succeeded Rajah Humabon as king of Cebu.[6] There is linguistic evidence that Cebu tried to preserve its Indian-Malay roots as time wore on since Antonio Pigafetta the scribe of Magellan described Rajah Tupas' father, the brother of Rajah Humabon as a "Bendara" which means "Treasurer" or "Vizier" in Sanskritized Malay[7] and is a shortening of the word "Bendahara" (भाण्डार) which means "Storage house" in Sanskrit.[19] The Hindu polity was dissolved during the reign of Rajah Tupas by the forces of conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi in the battle of Cebu during 1565.[2]
Relations with other rajahnates
The rajahs of Cebu were relatives to the rajahs of Butuan.[21] Thus the Rajahnates of Cebu and Butuan had relations with each other, as evidenced by the fact that Rajah Colambu of Butuan gave guidance to the Magellan expedition to reach Cebu.[22] The rajahs of Butuan were descendants of Rajah Kiling, who according to Researcher Eric Casino, were not Visayan in origin but rather, Indian, because Kiling refers to the people of India.[23] The Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) of the nearby country of Malaysia, point to the similarly worded Keling as the immigrant people from India to Southeast Asia.[24] However, Cebu was not at peace with all Rajahnates. The Rajahnate of Maynila, which was a colony of the Brunei Sultanate[25] and would later become the city of Maynila[25] had an arrogant attitude against Cebuanos and Visayans as the rajah of Maynila who had an Islamic name, Rajah Sulayman, ridiculed the Visayans that came and assisted the Miguel de Legaspi expedition (Which also included the Cebuanos) as an easily conquerable people.[26] Fernao Mendes Pinto, among the earlier Portuguese colonists of Southeast Asia, pointed out that there were Muslims and non-Muslims among the inhabitants of the Philippines who fought each other.[27]
Legacy
Indianization, although it was superseded by Hispanization, left markers in the Cebuano language and culture, such as religious practices and common vocabulary words whose origins are from Sanskrit and Tamil.[28] There is also genetic evidence of South Asian or Indian Hindu influence in Cebu as according to genetic studies, the people of Cebu and Bohol have as much as 10-20% of their genetics taken from South Asian admixture.[29]
Social Hierarchy
Below the rulers were the Timawa, the feudal warrior class of the ancient Visayan societies of the Philippines who were regarded as higher than the uripon (commoners, serfs, and slaves) but below the tumao (royal nobility) in the social hierarchy. They were roughly similar to the Tagalog Maharlika class.
Hindu-Buddhist artifacts
In 1921, Henry Otley Beyer found a crude Buddhist medallion and a copper statue of a Hindu deity, Ganesha, in ancient sites in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and in Mactan, Cebu.[30] The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they were of local reproduction. The icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
Modern name usage
There have been proposals to rename the current Central Visayas region, which is dominated by the Cebuano ethnic group, into Sugbu region, the former name of the region prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century.[31][32]
See also
- Related to Cebu polity
- Singhapala – the ancient capital of the polity of Cebu.
- Battle of Mactan
- Lapulapu
- Timawa
- Other related
Notes
- ^ Valeros, Maria Eleanor E. (September 13, 2009). "The Aginid". Philstar.com.
- ^ a b Scott, William Henry (1992). Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino and Other Essays in Philippine History. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0524-5.
- ^ a b c d e f Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.
- ^ a b c d Prehispanic Cebu
- ^ SONG, MING, AND OTHER CHINESE SOURCES ON PHILIPPINES-CHINA RELATIONS By Carmelea Ang See. Page 74.
- ^ a b Abellana, Jovito (1952). Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik.
- ^ a b THE GENEALOGY OF HARI' TUPAS: AN ETHNOHISTORY OF CHIEFLY POWER AND HIERARCHY IN SUGBU AS A PROTOSTATE Astrid Sala-Boza Page 280.
- ^ 5 other places in Asia which are also called Singapura By Joshua Lee
- ^ a b Quirino, Karl (September 1, 2010). "The Rajahnate of Cebu". The Bulwagan Foundation Trust.
- ^ "Singhapala", Wikipedia, March 23, 2021, retrieved September 12, 2021
- ^ Marr, J. (2003), "Chola", Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t017371, retrieved September 12, 2021
- ^ Montebon, Marivir R. (2000). Retracing Our Roots: A Journey Into Cebu's Precolonial and Colonial Past. Minglanilla, Cebu: ES Villaver Pub. p. 15. ISBN 971-92309-0-8.
- ^ a b c Macachor, Celestino C. (2011). "Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana". Rapid Journal. 10 (2). Archived from the original on July 3, 2012.
- ^ Approximated as Cata Raya Chita using Italianate orthography.
- ^ Pigafetta, A., Nancy-Libri-Phillipps-Beinecke-Yale codex, Skelton, R.A. English translation. pg. 71
- ^ Notes from Mactan By Jim Foster
- ^ "PRIMO VIAGGIO INTORNO AL MONDO" By Antonio Pigafetta. MS. composed ca. 1525, of events of 1519–1522 (Page 138)
- ^ The First Voyage Round the World by Antonio Pigafetta, translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley (Page 105)
- ^ Becoming Indian: The Unfinished Revolution of Culture and Identity by Pavan K. Varma p.125
- ^ Sala-Boza, Astrid (2006). "The Genealogy of Hari' Tupas: An Ethnohistory of Chiefly Power and Hierarchy in Sugbu as a Protostate". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 34 (3): 253–311. JSTOR 29792596.
- ^ The book Aginid recounts the beginning of Cebu as having been founded by Bataugong and Balintawak, supposedly Humabon's great-grandparents. The book further narrates how the descendants of this couple founded their own chiefdoms and the narrative shows that the rulers of Butuan, for instance, were relatives of Humabon.[20]
- ^ Jackson, Emma (2020). Ferdinand Magellan's Voyage and its Legacy in the Philippines (PDF). Proceedings of The National Conference On Undergraduate Research (NCUR) 2020 Montana State University, Bozeman MT March 26–28, 2020.
- ^ Casino, Eric (2014). "The Barangays of Butuan: Lumad Mindanaoans in China and the Sulu Zone". Asia Mindanaw: Dialogue of Peace and Development: 2.
- ^ "A Historical Perspective on the Word 'Keling'". Sejarah Melayu. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
- ^ a b Nakpil, Carmen Guerrero (October 29, 2003). "Carmen Nakpil: Manila Under the Muslims". Malaya. Archived from the original on March 4, 2009. Retrieved December 5, 2008 – via www.newsflash.org.
- ^ Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-135-4.
- ^ Pinto, Fernão Mendes (1989) [1578]. The Travels of Mendes Pinto. Translated by Catz, Rebecca D. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226669519.
- ^ Kuizon, Jose G. (1962). The Sanskrit loan-words in Cebuano-Bisayan language and the Indian elements to Cebuano-Bisayan culture (Thesis). University of San Carlos, Cebu. OCLC 3061923.
- ^ Delfin, F., Min-Shan Ko, A., Li, M., Gunnarsdóttir, E. D., Tabbada, K. A., Salvador, J. M., Calacal, G. C., Sagum, M. S., Datar, F. A., Padilla, S. G., De Ungria, M. C. A., & Stoneking, M. (2014). Complete mtDNA genomes of Filipino ethnolinguistic groups: a melting pot of recent and ancient lineages in the Asia-Pacific region. European Journal of Human Genetics, 22(2), 228–237.
- ^ Churchill, Malcolm H. (1977). "Indian Penetration of Pre-Spanish Philippines: A New Look at the Evidence" (PDF). Asian Studies. 15: 21–45.
- ^ "Change in Name Will be Good for Philippines". Inquirer.net. July 15, 2016.
- ^ "Should the Philippines be Renamed? Historian Weighs In". ABS-CBN News. June 13, 2017.
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