the designation for several quite different poetic and musical genres; originally, the name the Romanic peoples of the Middle Ages gave to a lyrical round dance song that always had a refrain. By the 13th century the modified ballad had become a popular genre of French and Italian professional poetry, especially that of the troubadours and trouvéres. The classical French ballad of the 14th and 15th centuries is a plotless lyrical poem in canonical form: three stanzas written with internal rhyme (ababbcbc), a “dedication” (an address to whomever the ballad is dedicated), and a refrain (the repetition of the last line of each stanza and of the “dedication”). An example of a ballad is F. Villon’s “On Women of Days Gone By.” In medieval England a ballad was a song with a plot, dramatic content, and a refrain sung by a chorus; ballads were usually based on a historic, legendary, or fictitious theme—for example, the series of ballads about Robin Hood. A ballad similar to the English and Scottish folk ballad became a favorite literary genre of sentimen-talism, romanticism, and neoromanticism (R. Burns, S. Coleridge, W. Blake, and R. Kipling in England and G. Bürger, F. Schiller, and H. Heine in Germany). In Russian poetry ballads were introduced by V. A. Zhukovskii. Ballads were written by A. S. Pushkin (“Song About Oleg the Wise” and “The Bridegroom”), M. Iu. Lermontov (“The Airborne Ship”), and A. K. Tolstoy (mostly on themes from Russian history). The Soviet poets N. S. Tikhonov and E. G. Bagritskii wrote ballads with heroic themes. In Soviet poetry, ballads with plot, dramatic content, and lyrico-epic “tonality” predominate (A. A. Surkov, P. G. Tychina, E. Charents, and others).

The flowering of the vocal ballad (mainly for solo singing to the accompaniment of a piano) stemmed from the revival of the ballad in professional poetry during the second half of the 18th century. The ballad is represented in the romantic music of Germany and Austria in the works of F. Schubert, R. Schumann, J. Brahms, and H. Wolf. The first Russian ballads originated in romantic poetry (A. A. Pleshcheev’s “Svet-lana,” with words by V. A. Zhukovskii, and the ballads of A. N. Verstovskii, A. E. Varlamov, and M. I. Glinka). The ballad genre was first used by A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky, and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

The instrumental ballad is a genre characteristic of romantic music. It combines epic narrative with dramatic development, and lyrical excitement with vivid picturesqueness (ballads for piano by F. Liszt, J. Brahms, E. Grieg, and especially F. Chopin; ballads and polonaise by H. Vieux-temps for violin and piano and ballads for piano and orchestra by G. Fauré).

In contemporary music there are different kinds of vocal and instrumental ballads. Contributions to the development of vocal ballads were made in ballads written to the lyrics of B. Brecht by H. Eisler. In Soviet music the ballad genre often receives heroic or heroic-epic treatment (“The Ballad of the Hero” from Iu. A. Shaporin’s symphony-cantata On the Kulikovo Field, S. S. Prokofiev’s “Ballad of the Boy Who Wanted to Remain Unknown,” and A. Babadzhanian’s “Heroic Ballad” for piano and orchestra).